Orai1-Orai2 complex is involved in store-operated calcium entry in chondrocyte cell lines

Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry in Fibrosis and Tissue Remodeling

Fibrosis is a pathological condition characterized by excessive tissue deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) components, leading to scarring and impaired function across multiple organ systems. This complex process is mediated by a dynamic interplay between cell types, including myofibroblasts, fibroblasts, immune cells, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells, each contributing distinctively through various signaling pathways. Critical to the regulatory mechanisms involved in fibrosis is store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), a calcium entry pathway into the cytosol active at the endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane contact sites and common to all cells. This review addresses the multifactorial nature of fibrosis with a focus on the pivotal roles of different cell types. We highlight the essential functions of myofibroblasts in ECM production, the transformation of fibroblasts, and the participation of immune cells in modulating the fibrotic landscape. We emphasize the contributions of SOCE in these different cell types to fibrosis, by exploring the involvement of SOCE in cellular functions such as proliferation, migration, secretion, and inflammatory responses. The examination of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of fibrosis and the role of SOCE in these mechanisms offers the potential of targeting SOCE as a therapeutic strategy for mitigating or reversing fibrosis.

Physiological Functions of CRAC Channels

Store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) is a ubiquitous Ca2+ signaling pathway that is evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes. SOCE is triggered physiologically when the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores are emptied through activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors. SOCE is mediated by the Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels, which are highly Ca2+ selective. Upon store depletion, the ER Ca2+-sensing STIM proteins aggregate and gain extended conformations spanning the ER-plasma membrane junctional space to bind and activate Orai, the pore-forming proteins of hexameric CRAC channels. In recent years, studies on STIM and Orai tissue-specific knockout mice and gain- and loss-of-function mutations in humans have shed light on the physiological functions of SOCE in various tissues. Here, we describe recent findings on the composition of native CRAC channels and their physiological functions in immune, muscle, secretory, and neuronal systems to draw lessons from transgenic mice and human diseases caused by altered CRAC channel activity.

Reciprocal Relationship between Ca2+ Signaling and Ca2+-Gated Ion Channels as a Potential Target for Drug Discovery

Cellular Ca²⁺ signaling functions as one of the most common second messengers of various signal transduction pathways in cells and mediates a number of physiological roles in a cell-type dependent manner. Ca²⁺ signaling also regulates more general and fundamental cellular activities, including cell proliferation and apoptosis. Among ion channels, Ca²⁺-permeable channels in the plasma membrane as well as endo- and sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes play important roles in Ca²⁺ signaling by directly contributing to the influx of Ca²⁺ from extracellular spaces or its release from storage sites, respectively. Furthermore, Ca²⁺-gated ion channels in the plasma membrane often crosstalk reciprocally with Ca²⁺ signals and are central to the regulation of cellular functions. This review focuses on the physiological and pharmacological impact of i) Ca²⁺-gated ion channels as an apparatus for the conversion of cellular Ca²⁺ signals to intercellularly propagative electrical signals and ii) the opposite feedback regulation of Ca²⁺ signaling by Ca²⁺-gated ion channel activities in excitable and non-excitable cells.

Orai2 Modulates Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry and Cell Cycle Progression in Breast Cancer Cells

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease from the histological and molecular expression point of view, and this heterogeneity determines cancer aggressiveness. Store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE), a major mechanism for Ca²⁺ entry in non-excitable cells, is significantly remodeled in cancer cells and plays an important role in the development and support of different cancer hallmarks. The store-operated CRAC (Ca²⁺ release-activated Ca²⁺) channels are predominantly comprised of Orai1 but the participation of Orai2 and Orai3 subunits has been reported to modulate the magnitude of Ca²⁺ responses. Here we provide evidence for a heterogeneous expression of Orai2 among different breast cancer cell lines. In the HER2 and triple negative breast cancer cell lines SKBR3 and BT20, respectively, where the expression of Orai2 was greater, Orai2 modulates the magnitude of SOCE and sustain Ca²⁺ oscillations in response to carbachol. Interestingly, in these cells Orai2 modulates the activation of NFAT1 and NFAT4 in response to high and low agonist concentrations. Finally, we have found that, in cells with high Orai2 expression, Orai2 knockdown leads to cell cycle arrest at the G0-G1 phase and decreases apoptosis resistance upon cisplatin treatment. Altogether, these findings indicate that, in breast cancer cells with a high Orai2 expression, Orai2 plays a relevant functional role in agonist-evoked Ca²⁺ signals, cell proliferation and apoptosis resistance.

Computer-Based Drug Design of Positive Modulators of Store-Operated Calcium Channels to Prevent Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) constitutes a fine-tuning mechanism responsible for the replenishment of intracellular stores. Hippocampal SOCE is regulated by store-operated channels (SOC) organized in tripartite complex TRPC6/ORAI2/STIM2. It is suggested that in neurons, SOCE maintains intracellular homeostatic Ca2+ concentration at resting conditions and is needed to support the structure of dendritic spines. Recent evidence suggests that positive modulators of SOC are prospective drug candidates to treat Alzheimer’s disease (AD) at early stages. Although STIM2 and ORAI2 are definitely involved in the regulation of nSOC amplitude and a play major role in AD pathogenesis, growing evidence suggest that it is not easy to target these proteins pharmacologically. Existing positive modulators of TRPC6 are unsuitable for drug development due to either bad pharmacokinetics or side effects. Thus, we concentrate the review on perspectives to develop specific nSOC modulators based on available 3D structures of TRPC6, ORAI2, and STIM2. We shortly describe the structural features of existing models and the methods used to prepare them. We provide commonly used steps applied for drug design based on 3D structures of target proteins that might be used to develop novel AD preventing therapy.

Mechanosensory and mechanotransductive processes mediated by ion channels in articular chondrocytes: Potential therapeutic targets for osteoarthritis

Articular cartilage consists of an extracellular matrix including many proteins as well as embedded chondrocytes. Articular cartilage formation and function are influenced by mechanical forces. Hind limb unloading or simulated microgravity causes articular cartilage loss, suggesting the importance of the healthy mechanical environment in articular cartilage homeostasis and implying a significant role of appropriate mechanical stimulation in articular cartilage degeneration. Mechanosensitive ion channels participate in regulating the metabolism of articular chondrocytes, including matrix protein production and extracellular matrix synthesis. Mechanical stimuli, including fluid shear stress, stretch, compression and cell swelling and decreased mechanical conditions (such as simulated microgravity) can alter the membrane potential and regulate the metabolism of articular chondrocytes via transmembrane ion channel-induced ionic fluxes. This process includes Ca2+ influx and the resulting mobilization of Ca2+ that is due to massive released Ca2+ from stores, intracellular cation efflux and extracellular cation influx. This review brings together published information on mechanosensitive ion channels, such as stretch-activated channels (SACs), voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs), large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BKCa channels), Ca2+-activated K+ channels (SKCa channels), voltage-activated H+ channels (VAHCs), acid sensing ion channels (ASICs), transient receptor potential (TRP) family channels, and piezo1/2 channels. Data based on epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs), purinergic receptors and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are also included. These channels mediate mechanoelectrical physiological processes essential for converting physical force signals into biological signals. The primary channel-mediated effects and signaling pathways regulated by these mechanosensitive ion channels can influence the progression of osteoarthritis during the mechanosensory and mechanoadaptive process of articular chondrocytes.

Ezh2 knockout in mesenchymal cells causes enamel hyper-mineralization

Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is the catalytic core of polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which primarily methylates lysine 27 on histone H3 (H2K27me3), generating transcriptionally suppressed heterochromatin. Since EZH2 suppresses expression of genes involved in dentin formation, we examined the role of EZH2 in tooth development. Intriguingly, microCT analysis of teeth from mice with conditional Ezh2 knockout in uncommitted mesenchymal cells showed hyper-mineralization of enamel, which is produced by the epithelial-lineage cells, ameloblasts. Scanning electron microscopy analysis and nano-indentation of the incisor enamel from knockout mice revealed smaller inter-rod spaces and higher hardness compared to wild type enamel, respectively. Interestingly, expression of the calcium channel subunit gene, Orai2, was decreased compared to its competitor, Orai1, both in knockout mouse incisors and the ex vivo culture of ameloblasts with the surrounding tissues under EZH2 inhibition. Moreover, histological analysis of incisor from knockout mice showed decreased ameloblastin and expedited KLK4 expression in the ameloblasts. These observations suggest that EZH2 depletion in dental mesenchymal cells reduces enamel matrix formation and increases enamel protease activity from ameloblasts, resulting in enamel hyper-mineralization. This study demonstrates the significant role of the suppressive H3K27me3 mark for heterochromatin on enamel formation.

Transcriptome-based screening of ion channels and transporters in a migratory chondroprogenitor cell line isolated from late-stage osteoarthritic cartilage

Chondrogenic progenitor cells (CPCs) may be used as an alternative source of cells with potentially superior chondrogenic potential compared to mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and could be exploited for future regenerative therapies targeting articular cartilage in degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA). In this study, we hypothesised that CPCs derived from OA cartilage may be characterised by a distinct channelome. First, a global transcriptomic analysis using Affymetrix microarrays was performed. We studied the profiles of those ion channels and transporter families that may be relevant to chondroprogenitor cell physiology. Following validation of the microarray data with quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, we examined the role of calcium-dependent potassium channels in CPCs and observed functional large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels involved in the maintenance of the chondroprogenitor phenotype. In line with our very recent results, we found that the KCNMA1 gene was upregulated in CPCs and observed currents that could be attributed to the BK channel. The BK channel inhibitor paxilline significantly inhibited proliferation, increased the expression of the osteogenic transcription factor RUNX2, enhanced the migration parameters, and completely abolished spontaneous Ca²⁺ events in CPCs. Through characterisation of their channelome we demonstrate that CPCs are a distinct cell population but are highly similar to MSCs in many respects. This study adds key mechanistic data to the in-depth characterisation of CPCs and their phenotype in the context of cartilage regeneration.

Proteins Interacting with STIM1 and Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) interacts with ORAI Ca²⁺ channels at the plasma membrane to regulate immune and muscle cell function. The conformational changes underlying STIM1 activation, translocation, and ORAI1 trapping and gating, are stringently regulated by post-translational modifications and accessory proteins. Here, we review the recent progress in the identification and characterization of ER and cytosolic proteins interacting with STIM1 to control its activation and deactivation during store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE).

Swelling-activated ClC-3 activity regulates prostaglandin E2 release in human OUMS-27 chondrocytes

Articular chondrocytes are exposed to dynamic osmotic environments during normal joint loading, and thus, require effective volume regulatory mechanisms. A regulatory volume decrease (RVD) is one of the mechanisms for protecting chondrocytes from swelling and damage. Swelling-activated Cl^- currents (I_Cl,swell) are responsible for the RVD, but the molecular identity in chondrocytes is largely unknown. In this study, we reveal that in human OUMS-27 chondrocytes, I_Cl,swell can be elicited by hypoosmotic stimulation (180 mOsm) and be inhibited by classical Cl^- channel blockers, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS) and niflumic acid, and be attenuated by siRNA knockdown of ClC-3. Our molecular analyses revealed that ClC-3A is expressed as a major splice variant in both human articular chondrocytes and OUMS-27 cells. The onset and early phase of RVD following hypoosmotic stress in OUMS-27 cells were affected by DIDS and ClC-3 knockdown. Hypoosmotic stimulation caused Ca²⁺ influx and subsequent release of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in OUMS-27 cells, and both of these responses were reduced by DIDS and ClC-3 knockdown. These results strongly suggest that ClC-3 is responsible for I_Cl,swell and RVD under the hypoosmotic environments. It is likely that ClC-3 is associated with the pathogenesis of cartilage degenerative diseases including osteoarthritis via PGE₂ release.

CRAC Channels and Calcium Signaling in T Cell-Mediated Immunity

Calcium (Ca²⁺) signals play fundamental roles in immune cell function. The main sources of Ca²⁺ influx in mammalian lymphocytes following antigen receptor stimulation are Ca²⁺ release-activated Ca²⁺ (CRAC) channels. These are formed by ORAI proteins in the plasma membrane and are activated by stromal interaction molecules (STIM) located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Human loss-of-function (LOF) mutations in ORAI1 and STIM1 that abolish Ca²⁺ influx cause a unique disease syndrome called CRAC channelopathy that is characterized by immunodeficiency autoimmunity and non-immunological symptoms. Studies in mice lacking Stim and Orai genes have illuminated many cellular and molecular mechanisms by which these molecules control lymphocyte function. CRAC channels are required for the differentiation and function of several T lymphocyte subsets that provide immunity to infection, mediate inflammation and prevent autoimmunity. This review examines new insights into how CRAC channels control T cell-mediated immunity.

K+ and Ca2+ Channels Regulate Ca2+ Signaling in Chondrocytes: An Illustrated Review

An improved understanding of fundamental physiological principles and progressive pathophysiological processes in human articular joints (e.g., shoulders, knees, elbows) requires detailed investigations of two principal cell types: synovial fibroblasts and chondrocytes. Our studies, done in the past 8–10 years, have used electrophysiological, Ca²⁺ imaging, single molecule monitoring, immunocytochemical, and molecular methods to investigate regulation of the resting membrane potential (E_R) and intracellular Ca²⁺ levels in human chondrocytes maintained in 2-D culture. Insights from these published papers are as follows: (1) Chondrocyte preparations express a number of different ion channels that can regulate their E_R. (2) Understanding the basis for E_R requires knowledge of (a) the presence or absence of ligand (ATP/histamine) stimulation and (b) the extraordinary ionic composition and ionic strength of synovial fluid. (3) In our chondrocyte preparations, at least two types of Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels are expressed and can significantly hyperpolarize E_R. (4) Accounting for changes in E_R can provide insights into the functional roles of the ligand-dependent Ca²⁺ influx through store-operated Ca²⁺ channels. Some of the findings are illustrated in this review. Our summary diagram suggests that, in chondrocytes, the K⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels are linked in a positive feedback loop that can augment Ca²⁺ influx and therefore regulate lubricant and cytokine secretion and gene transcription.

Calcium Signaling in ß-cell Physiology and Pathology: A Revisit

Pancreatic beta (β) cell dysfunction results in compromised insulin release and, thus, failed regulation of blood glucose levels. This forms the backbone of the development of diabetes mellitus (DM), a disease that affects a significant portion of the global adult population. Physiological calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling has been found to be vital for the proper insulin-releasing function of β-cells. Calcium dysregulation events can have a dramatic effect on the proper functioning of the pancreatic β-cells. The current review discusses the role of calcium signaling in health and disease in pancreatic β-cells and provides an in-depth look into the potential role of alterations in β-cell Ca²⁺ homeostasis and signaling in the development of diabetes and highlights recent work that introduced the current theories on the connection between calcium and the onset of diabetes.

CRAC channel regulation of innate immune cells in health and disease

Calcium is a major intracellular signaling messenger in innate immune cells. Similar to other immune cell subsets, the majority of calcium entry into innate immune cells is induced by cell surface receptors that stimulate store-operated calcium entry through calcium-release activated calcium (CRAC) channels. Since the molecular description of the STIM family of calcium sensors and the ORAI family of CRAC channel proteins, the majority of studies support a dominant role for these proteins in calcium signaling in innate cells. In reviewing the literature on CRAC channel function in innate cells, several general themes emerge. All innate cells express multiple members of the STIM and ORAI family members, however the ratio and relative contribution of individual isoforms changes depending on the cell type and activation state of the cell. It is evident that study of functional roles for STIM molecules is clearly ahead of studies of specific ORAI family members in all innate cell types, and that studies of CRAC channels in innate cells are not nearly as advanced as studies in lymphocytes. However, taken together, evidence from both STIM calcium sensors and ORAI channels in innate cells indicates that deficiency of STIM and ORAI proteins tends not to affect the development of any innate cell lineage, but certainly affects their function, in particular activation of the neutrophil oxidase and mast cell activation via IgE receptors. Furthermore, there are clearly hints that therapeutic targeting of CRAC channels in innate cells offers a new approach to various inflammatory and allergic diseases.

IL-10 Could Play a Role in the Interrelation between Diabetes Mellitus and Osteoarthritis

The association between osteoarthritis (OA), obesity and metabolic syndrome suggests an interrelation between OA and diabetes mellitus (DM). Little is known about the role of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 in the interrelation between OA and DM. Hence, the effects of IL-10 under hyperglycemia (HG) and hyperinsulinemia (HI) in human articular chondrocytes (hAC) and chondrosarcoma cell line Okayama University Medical School (OUMS)-27 were examined. HAC and OUMS-27, cultured in normoglycemic (NG) and HG conditions were stimulated with insulin and/or IL-10. Cell survival, metabolic activity, proliferation and extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis were immunocytochemically examined. No significant differences in vitality of hAC neither in pure NG (NG_w/o) nor HG (HG_w/o) conditions were found. Applying HI and/or IL-10 in both conditions reduced significantly the vitality of hAC but not of OUMS-27. HG impaired significantly hAC metabolism. When combined with HI + IL-10 or IL-10 alone it decreased also significantly hAC proliferation compared to NG_w/o. In OUMS-27 it induced only a trend of impaired proliferation compared to NG_w/o. hAC but not OUMS-27 reduced significantly their collagen type (col) I, SOX9 and proteoglycan (PG) synthesis in HG combined with HI +/− IL-10 compared to NG_w/o. IL-10 could not moderate HI and HG effects. In contrast to hAC OUMS-27 showed limited sensitivity as DM model.

Synergistically regulated spontaneous calcium signaling is attributed to cartilaginous extracellular matrix metabolism

Ca²⁺ has been recognized as a key molecule for chondrocytes, however, the role and mechanism of spontaneous [Ca ²⁺ ] _i signaling in cartilaginous extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolism regulation are unclear. Here we found that spontaneous Ca ²⁺ signal of in-situ porcine chondrocytes was [Ca ²⁺ ] _o dependent, and mediated by [Ca ²⁺ ] _i store release. T-type voltage-dependent calcium channel (T-VDCC) mediated [Ca ²⁺ ] _o influx was associated with decreased cell viability and expression levels of ECM deposition genes. Further analysis revealed that chondrocytes expressed both inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (InsP3R) and Orai isoforms. Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca ²⁺ release and store-operated calcium entry significantly abolished spontaneous [Ca ²⁺ ] _i signaling of in-situ chondrocytes. Moreover, blocking ER Ca ²⁺ release with InsP3R inhibitors significantly upregulated ECM degradation enzymes production, and was accompanied by decreased proteoglycan and collagen type II intensity. Taken together, our data provided evidence that spontaneous [Ca ²⁺ ] _i signaling of in-situ porcine chondrocytes was tightly regulated by [Ca ²⁺ ] _o influx, InsP3Rs mediated [Ca ²⁺ ] _i store release, and Orais mediated calcium release-activated calcium channels activation. Both T-VDCC mediated [Ca ²⁺ ] _o influx and InsP3Rs mediated ER Ca ²⁺ release were found crucial to cartilaginous ECM metabolism through distinct regulatory mechanisms.

Physiological and Pathological Functions of Cl- Channels in Chondrocytes

Articular chondrocytes are embedded in the cartilage of diarthrodial joints and responsible for the synthesis and secretion of extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix mainly contains collagens and proteoglycans, and covers the articular cartilage to protect from mechanical and biochemical stresses. In mammalian chondrocytes, various types of ion channels have been identified: e.g., voltage-dependent K⁺ channels, Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels, ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels, two-pore domain K⁺ channels, voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels, store-operated Ca²⁺ channels, epithelial Na⁺ channels, acid-sensing ion channels, transient receptor potential channels, and mechanosensitive channels. These channels play important roles for the regulation of resting membrane potential, Ca²⁺ signaling, pH sensing, mechanotransduction, and cell proliferation in articular chondrocytes. In addition to these cation channels, Cl^- channels are known to be expressed in mammalian chondrocytes: e.g., voltage-dependent Cl^- channels, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channels, swelling-activated Cl^- channels, and Ca²⁺-activated Cl^- channels. Although these chondrocyte Cl^- channels are thought to contribute to the regulation of resting membrane potential, Ca²⁺ signaling, cell volume, cell survival, and endochondral bone formation, the physiological functions have not been fully clarified. Osteoarthritis (OA) is caused by the degradation of articular cartilage, resulting in inflammation and pain in the joints. Therefore the pathophysiological roles of Cl^- channels in OA chondrocytes are of considerable interest. Elucidating the physiological and pathological functions of chondrocyte Cl^- channels will provide us a more comprehensive understanding of chondrocyte functions and may suggest novel molecular targets of drug development for OA.

Hypoxic stress upregulates Kir2.1 expression by a pathway including hypoxic-inducible factor-1α and dynamin2 in brain capillary endothelial cells

Brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) play a central role in maintenance of blood-brain barrier (BBB) function and, therefore, are essential for central nervous system homeostasis and integrity. Although brain ischemia damages BCECs and causes disruption of BBB, the related influence of hypoxia on BCECs is not well understood. Hypoxic stress can upregulate functional expression of specific K+ currents in endothelial cells, e.g., Kir2.1 channels without any alterations in the mRNA level, in t-BBEC117, a cell line derived from bovine BCECs. The hyperpolarization of membrane potential due to Kir2.1 channel upregulation significantly facilitates cell proliferation. In the present study, the mechanisms underlying the hypoxia-induced Kir2.1 upregulation was examined. We emphasize the involvement of dynamin2, a protein known to be involved in a number of surface expression pathways. Hypoxic culture upregulated dynamin2 expression in t-BBEC117 cells. The inhibition of dynamin2 by Dynasore canceled hypoxia-induced upregulation of Kir2.1 currents by reducing surface expression. On the contrary, Kir2.1 currents and proteins in t-BBEC117 cultured under normoxia were increased by overexpression of dynamin2, but not by dominant-negative dynamin2. Molecular imaging based on bimolecular fluorescence complementation, double-immunostaining, and coimmunoprecipitation assays revealed that dynamin2 can directly bind to the Kir2.1 channel. Moreover, hypoxic culture downregulated hypoxic-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) expression. Knockdown of HIF-1α increased dynamin2 expression in t-BBEC117 cells, in both normoxic and hypoxic culture conditions. In summary, our results demonstrated that hypoxia downregulates HIF-1α, increases dynamin2 expression, and facilitates Kir2.1 surface expression, resulting in hyperpolarization of membrane potential and subsequent increase in Ca2+ influx in BCECs.

CRAC channels as targets for drug discovery and development

Calcium release-activated calcium (CRAC) channels have been the target of drug discovery for many years. The identification of STIM and Orai proteins as key components of CRAC channels greatly facilitated this process because their co-expression in cell lines produced electrophysiological currents (I_CRAC) much larger than those in native cells, making it easier to confirm and characterize the effects of modulatory compounds. A driving force in the quest for CRAC channel drugs has been the immunocompromised phenotype displayed by humans and mice with null or loss-of-function mutations in STIM1 or Orai1, suggesting that CRAC channel inhibitors could be useful therapeutics for autoimmune or inflammatory conditions. Emerging data also suggests that other therapeutic conditions may benefit from CRAC channel inhibition. However, only recently have CRAC channel inhibitors reached clinical trials. This review discusses the challenges associated with drug discovery and development on CRAC channels and the approaches employed to date, as well as the results, starting from initial high-throughput screens for CRAC channel modulators and progressing through target selection and justification, descriptions of pharmacological, safety and toxicological profiles of compounds, and finally the entry of CRAC channel inhibitors into clinical trials.

The chondrocyte channelome: A narrative review

Chondrocytes are the main cells in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of articular cartilage and possess a highly differentiated phenotype that is the hallmark of the unique physiological functions of this specialised load-bearing connective tissue. The plasma membrane of articular chondrocytes contains a rich and diverse complement of membrane proteins, known as the membranome, which defines the cell surface phenotype of the cells. The membranome is a key target of pharmacological agents and is important for chondrocyte function. It includes channels, transporters, enzymes, receptors, and anchors for intracellular, cytoskeletal and ECM proteins and other macromolecular complexes. The chondrocyte channelome is a sub-compartment of the membranome and includes a complete set of ion channels and porins expressed in these cells. Many of these are multi-functional proteins with "moonlighting" roles, serving as channels, receptors and signalling components of larger molecular assemblies. The aim of this review is to summarise our current knowledge of the fundamental aspects of the chondrocyte channelome, discuss its relevance to cartilage biology and highlight its possible role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA). Excessive and inappropriate mechanical loads, an inflammatory micro-environment, alternative splicing of channel components or accumulation of basic calcium phosphate crystals can result in an altered chondrocyte channelome impairing its function. Alterations in Ca²⁺ signalling may lead to defective synthesis of ECM macromolecules and aggravated catabolic responses in chondrocytes, which is an important and relatively unexplored aspect of the complex and poorly understood mechanism of OA development.

Hypoxia selectively upregulates cation channels and increases cytosolic [Ca2+] in pulmonary, but not coronary, arterial smooth muscle cells

Ca²⁺ signaling, particularly the mechanism via store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) and receptor-operated Ca²⁺ entry (ROCE), plays a critical role in the development of acute hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction and chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that chronic hypoxia differentially regulates the expression of proteins that mediate SOCE and ROCE [stromal interacting molecule (STIM), Orai, and canonical transient receptor potential channel TRPC6] in pulmonary (PASMC) and coronary (CASMC) artery smooth muscle cells. The resting cytosolic [Ca²⁺] ([Ca²⁺]_cyt) and the stored [Ca²⁺] in the sarcoplasmic reticulum were not different in CASMC and PASMC. Seahorse measurement showed a similar level of mitochondrial bioenergetics (basal respiration and ATP production) between CASMC and PASMC. Glycolysis was significantly higher in PASMC than in CASMC. The amplitudes of cyclopiazonic acid-induced SOCE and OAG-induced ROCE in CASMC are slightly, but significantly, greater than in PASMC. The frequency and the area under the curve of Ca²⁺ oscillations induced by ATP and histamine were also larger in CASMC than in PASMC. Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger-mediated increases in [Ca²⁺]_cyt did not differ significantly between CASMC and PASMC. The basal protein expression levels of STIM1/2, Orai1/2, and TRPC6 were higher in CASMC than in PASMC, but hypoxia (3% O₂ for 72 h) significantly upregulated protein expression levels of STIM1/STIM2, Orai1/Orai2, and TRPC6 and increased the resting [Ca²⁺]_cyt only in PASMC, but not in CASMC. The different response of essential components of store-operated and receptor-operated Ca²⁺ channels to hypoxia is a unique intrinsic property of PASMC, which is likely one of the important explanations why hypoxia causes pulmonary vasoconstriction and induces pulmonary vascular remodeling, but causes coronary vasodilation.

Magnetic-targeting of polyethylenimine-wrapped iron oxide nanoparticle labeled chondrocytes in a rabbit articular cartilage defect model

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent form of joint disease and lacks effective treatment. Cell-based therapy through intra-articular injection holds great potential for effective intervention at its early stage. Despite the promising outcomes, major barriers for successful clinical application such as lack of specific targeting of transplanted cells still remain. Here, novel polyethylenimine-wrapped iron oxide nanoparticles (PEI/IONs) were utilized as a magnetic agent, and the in vitro efficiency of PEI/ION labeling, and the influence on the chondrogenic properties of chondrocytes were evaluated; the in vivo feasibility of magnetic-targeting intra-articular injection with PEI/ION labeled autologous chondrocytes was investigated using a rabbit articular cartilage defect model. Our data showed that chondrocytes were conveniently labeled with PEI/IONs in a time- and dose-dependent manner, while the viability was unaffected. No significant decrease in collagen type-II synthesis of labeled chondrocytes was observed at low concentration. Macrographic and histology evaluation at 1 week post intra-articular injection revealed efficient cell delivery at chondral defect sites in the magnetic-targeting group. In addition, chondrocytes in the defect area presented a normal morphology, and the origin of cells within was confirmed by immunohistochemistry staining against BrdU and Prussian blue staining. The present study shows proof of concept experiments in magnetic-targeting of PEI/ION labeled chondrocytes for articular cartilage repair, which might provide new insight to improve current cartilage repair strategies.

Magnetic-targeting outcome in the knee joint of experimental rabbit model at 1 week post intra-articular injection.

Altered spontaneous calcium signaling of in situ chondrocytes in human osteoarthritic cartilage

Intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) signaling is an essential universal secondary messenger in articular chondrocytes. However, little is known about its spatiotemporal features in the context of osteoarthritis (OA). Herein, by examining the cartilage samples collected from patients undergoing knee arthroscopic surgery, we investigated the spatiotemporal features of spontaneous [Ca²⁺]_i signaling in in situ chondrocytes at different OA stages. Our data showed zonal dependent spontaneous [Ca²⁺]_i signaling in healthy cartilage samples under 4 mM calcium environment. This signal was significantly attenuated in healthy cartilage samples but increased in early-degenerated cartilage when cultured in 0 mM calcium environment. No significant difference was found in [Ca²⁺]_i intensity oscillation in chondrocytes located in middle zones among ICRS 1–3 samples under both 4 and 0 mM calcium environments. However, the correlation was found in deep zone chondrocytes incubated in 4 mM calcium environment. In addition, increased protein abundance of Ca_v3.3 T-type voltage dependent calcium channel and Nfatc2 activity were observed in early-degenerated cartilage samples. The present study exhibited OA severity dependent spatiotemporal features of spontaneous [Ca²⁺]_i oscillations of in situ chondrocytes, which might reflect the zonal specific role of chondrocytes during OA progression and provide new insight in articular cartilage degradation during OA progression.

TMEM16A and TMEM16B channel proteins generate Ca2+-activated Cl- current and regulate melatonin secretion in rat pineal glands

Pinealocytes regulate circadian rhythm by synthesizing and secreting melatonin. These cells generate action potentials; however, the contribution of specific ion channels to melatonin secretion from pinealocytes remains unclear. In this study, the involvement and molecular identity of Ca²⁺-activated Cl^- (Cl_Ca) channels in the regulation of melatonin secretion were examined in rat pineal glands. Treatment with the Cl_Ca channel blockers, niflumic acid or T16A_inh-A01, significantly reduced melatonin secretion in pineal glands. After pineal K⁺ currents were totally blocked under whole-cell patch clamp conditions, depolarization and subsequent repolarization induced a slowly activating outward current and a substantial inward tail current, respectively. Both of these current changes were dependent on intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration and inhibited by niflumic acid and T16A_inh-A01. Quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting, and immunocytochemical analyses revealed that TMEM16A and TMEM16B were highly expressed in pineal glands. siRNA knockdown of TMEM16A and/or TMEM16B showed that both channels contribute to Cl_Ca currents in pinealocytes. Conversely, co-expression of TMEM16A and TMEM16B channels or the expression of this tandem channel in HEK293 cells mimicked the electrophysiological characteristics of Cl_Ca currents in pinealocytes. Moreover, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, FRET, and co-immunoprecipitation experiments suggested that TMEM16A and TMEM16B can form heteromeric channels, as well as homomeric channels. In conclusion, pineal Cl_Ca channels are composed of TMEM16A and TMEM16B subunits, and these fluxes regulate melatonin secretion in pineal glands.

Heterodimerization of two pore domain K+ channel TASK1 and TALK2 in living heterologous expression systems

Two-pore-domain K+ (K2P) channels sense a wide variety of stimuli such as mechanical stress, inhalational anesthetics, and changes in extracellular pH or temperature. The K2P channel activity forms a background K+ current and, thereby, contributes to resting membrane potentials. Six subfamilies including fifteen subtypes of K2P channels have been identified. Each K2P channel molecule with two pores consists of a homodimer of each subtype. In addition, a few heterodimers mainly within the same subfamilies have been found recently. In the present study, the possibility of heterodimerization between TASK1 (TWIK-Related Acid-Sensitive K+ channel) and TALK2 (TWIK-Related Alkaline pH-Activated K+ channel) was examined. These channels belong to separate subfamilies and show extremely different channel properties. Surprisingly, single molecular imaging analyses in this study using a total internal reflection microscope suggested the heterodimerization of TASK1 and TALK2 in a pancreatic cell line, QGP-1. This heterodimer was also detected using a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay in a HEK293 heterologous expression system. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer analyses showed that the affinity between TASK1 and TALK2 appeared to be close to those of homodimers. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that TASK1 currents in HEK293 cells were significantly attenuated by co-expression of a dominant-negative form of TALK2 in comparison with that of wild-type TALK2. The sensitivities of TASK1-TALK2 tandem constructs to extracellular pH and halothane were characterized as a unique hybrid of TASK1 and TALK2. These results suggested that heterodimerization of TASK1 and TALK2 provides cells with the ability to make multiple responses to a variety of physiological and pharmacological stimuli.

Store-Operated Calcium Channel Complex in Postsynaptic Spines: A New Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease Treatment

Mushroom dendritic spine structures are essential for memory storage and the loss of mushroom spines may explain memory defects in aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The stability of mushroom spines depends on stromal interaction molecule 2 (STIM2)-mediated neuronal-store-operated Ca²⁺ influx (nSOC) pathway, which is compromised in AD mouse models, in aging neurons, and in sporadic AD patients. Here, we demonstrate that the Transient Receptor Potential Canonical 6 (TRPC6) and Orai2 channels form a STIM2-regulated nSOC Ca²⁺ channel complex in hippocampal mushroom spines. We further demonstrate that a known TRPC6 activator, hyperforin, and a novel nSOC positive modulator, NSN21778 (NSN), can stimulate activity of nSOC pathway in the spines and rescue mushroom spine loss in both presenilin and APP knock-in mouse models of AD. We further show that NSN rescues hippocampal long-term potentiation impairment in APP knock-in mouse model. We conclude that the STIM2-regulated TRPC6/Orai2 nSOC channel complex in dendritic mushroom spines is a new therapeutic target for the treatment of memory loss in aging and AD and that NSN is a potential candidate molecule for therapeutic intervention in brain aging and AD.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Mushroom dendritic spine structures are essential for memory storage and the loss of mushroom spines may explain memory defects in Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study demonstrated that Transient Receptor Potential Canonical 6 (TRPC6) and Orai2 form stromal interaction molecule 2 (STIM2)-regulated neuronal-store-operated Ca²⁺ influx (nSOC) channel complex in hippocampal synapse and the resulting Ca²⁺ influx is critical for long-term maintenance of mushroom spines in hippocampal neurons. A novel nSOC-positive modulator, NSN21778 (NSN), rescues mushroom spine loss and synaptic plasticity impairment in AD mice models. The TRPC6/Orai2 nSOC channel complex is a new therapeutic target and NSN is a potential candidate molecule for therapeutic intervention in brain aging and AD.

Role of SOCE architects STIM and Orai proteins in Cell Death

Calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling plays a critical role in regulating plethora of cellular functions including cell survival, proliferation and migration. The perturbations in cellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis can lead to cell death either by activating autophagic pathways or through induction of apoptosis. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the major storehouse of Ca²⁺ within cells and a number of physiological agonists mediate ER Ca²⁺ release by activating IP₃ receptors (IP₃R). This decrease in ER Ca²⁺ levels is sensed by STIM, which physically interacts and activates plasma membrane Ca²⁺ selective Orai channels. Emerging literature implicates a key role for STIM1, STIM2, Orai1 and Orai3 in regulating both cell survival and death pathways. In this review, we will retrospect the work highlighting the role of STIM and Orai homologs in regulating cell death signaling. We will further discuss the rationales that could explain the dual role of STIM and Orai proteins in regulating cell fate decisions.

ORAI2 modulates store-operated calcium entry and T cell-mediated immunity

Store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) through Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels is critical for lymphocyte function and immune responses. CRAC channels are hexamers of ORAI proteins that form the channel pore, but the contributions of individual ORAI homologues to CRAC channel function are not well understood. Here we show that deletion of Orai1 reduces, whereas deletion of Orai2 increases, SOCE in mouse T cells. These distinct effects are due to the ability of ORAI2 to form heteromeric channels with ORAI1 and to attenuate CRAC channel function. The combined deletion of Orai1 and Orai2 abolishes SOCE and strongly impairs T cell function. In vivo, Orai1/Orai2 double-deficient mice have impaired T cell-dependent antiviral immune responses, and are protected from T cell-mediated autoimmunity and alloimmunity in models of colitis and graft-versus-host disease. Our study demonstrates that ORAI1 and ORAI2 form heteromeric CRAC channels, in which ORAI2 fine-tunes the magnitude of SOCE to modulate immune responses.

The STIM-Orai Pathway: Regulation of STIM and Orai by Thiol Modifications

Cysteines are among the least abundant amino acids found in proteins. Due to their unique nucleophilic thiol group, they are able to undergo a broad range of chemical modifications besides their known role in disulfide formation, such as S-sulfenylation (-SOH), S-sulfinylation (-SO(2)H), S-sufonylation (-SO(3)H), S-glutathionylation (-SSG), and S-sulfhydration (-SSH), among others. These posttranslational modifications can be irreversible and act as transitional modifiers or as reversible on-off switches for the function of proteins. Disturbances of the redox homeostasis, for example, in situations of increased oxidative stress, can contribute to a range of diseases. Because Ca²⁺ signaling mediated by store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is involved in a plethora of cellular responses, the cross-talk between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ is critical for homeostatic control. Identification of calcium regulatory protein targets of thiol redox modifications is needed to understand their role in biology and disease.

A New Splice Variant of Large Conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) Channel α Subunit Alters Human Chondrocyte Function

Large conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (BK) channels play essential roles in both excitable and non-excitable cells. For example, in chondrocytes, agonist-induced Ca²⁺ release from intracellular store activates BK channels, and this hyperpolarizes these cells, augments Ca²⁺ entry, and forms a positive feed-back mechanism for Ca²⁺ signaling and stimulation-secretion coupling. In the present study, functional roles of a newly identified splice variant in the BK channel α subunit (BKαΔe2) were examined in a human chondrocyte cell line, OUMS-27, and in a HEK293 expression system. Although BKαΔe2 lacks exon2, which codes the intracellular S0-S1 linker (Glu-127-Leu-180), significant expression was detected in several tissues from humans and mice. Molecular image analyses revealed that BKαΔe2 channels are not expressed on plasma membrane but can traffic to the plasma membrane after forming hetero-tetramer units with wild-type BKα (BKαWT). Single-channel current analyses demonstrated that BKα hetero-tetramers containing one, two, or three BKαΔe2 subunits are functional. These hetero-tetramers have a smaller single channel conductance and exhibit lower trafficking efficiency than BKαWT homo-tetramers in a stoichiometry-dependent manner. Site-directed mutagenesis of residues in exon2 identified Helix2 and the linker to S1 (Trp-158-Leu-180, particularly Arg-178) as an essential segment for channel function including voltage dependence and trafficking. BKαΔe2 knockdown in OUMS-27 chondrocytes increased BK current density and augmented the responsiveness to histamine assayed as cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression. These findings provide significant new evidence that BKαΔe2 can modulate cellular responses to physiological stimuli in human chondrocyte and contribute under pathophysiological conditions, such as osteoarthritis.

Visualizing Quantum Dot Labeled ORAI1 Proteins in Intact Cells Via Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy

ORAI1 proteins are ion channel subunits and the essential pore-forming units of the calcium release-activated calcium channel complex essential for T-cell activation and many other cellular processes. In this study, we used environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) detection to image plasma membrane expressed ORAI1 proteins in whole Jurkat T cells in the liquid state. Utilizing a stably transfected Jurkat T cell clone expressing human ORAI1 with an extracellular human influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tag we investigated if liquid-phase STEM can be applied to detect recombinant surface expressed protein. Streptavidin coated quantum dots were coupled in a one-to-one stoichiometry to ORAI1 proteins detected by biotinylated anti-HA fragmented antibody fragments. High-resolution electron microscopic images revealed the individual label locations from which protein pair distances were determined. These data were analyzed using the pair correlation function and, in addition, an analysis of cluster size and frequency was performed. ORAI1 was found to be present in hexamers in a small fraction only, and ORAI1 resided mostly in monomers and dimers.

Regulation of neurogenesis by calcium signaling

Calcium (Ca(2+)) signaling has essential roles in the development of the nervous system from neural induction to the proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neural cells. Ca(2+) signaling pathways are shaped by interactions among metabotropic signaling cascades, intracellular Ca(2+) stores, ion channels, and a multitude of downstream effector proteins that activate specific genetic programs. The temporal and spatial dynamics of Ca(2+) signals are widely presumed to control the highly diverse yet specific genetic programs that establish the complex structures of the adult nervous system. Progress in the last two decades has led to significant advances in our understanding of the functional architecture of Ca(2+) signaling networks involved in neurogenesis. In this review, we assess the literature on the molecular and functional organization of Ca(2+) signaling networks in the developing nervous system and its impact on neural induction, gene expression, proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Particular emphasis is placed on the growing evidence for the involvement of store-operated Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels in these processes.

Cell type-specific glycosylation of Orai1 modulates store-operated Ca2+ entry

N-glycosylation of cell surface proteins affects protein function, stability, and interaction with other proteins. Orai channels, which mediate store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE), are composed of N-glycosylated subunits. Upon activation by Ca(2+) sensor proteins (stromal interaction molecules STIM1 or STIM2) in the endoplasmic reticulum, Orai Ca(2+) channels in the plasma membrane mediate Ca(2+) influx. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins, and Siglecs are a family of sialic acid-binding lectins with immunoglobulin-like repeats. Using Western blot analysis and lectin-binding assays from various primary human cells and cancer cell lines, we found that glycosylation of Orai1 is cell type-specific. Ca(2+) imaging experiments and patch-clamp experiments revealed that mutation of the only glycosylation site of Orai1 (Orai1N223A) enhanced SOCE in Jurkat T cells. Knockdown of the sialyltransferase ST6GAL1 reduced α-2,6-linked sialic acids in the glycan structure of Orai1 and was associated with increased Ca(2+) entry in Jurkat T cells. In human mast cells, inhibition of sialyl sulfation altered the N-glycan of Orai1 (and other proteins) and increased SOCE. These data suggest that cell type-specific glycosylation influences the interaction of Orai1 with specific lectins, such as Siglecs, which then attenuates SOCE. In summary, the glycosylation state of Orai1 influences SOCE-mediated Ca(2+) signaling and, thus, may contribute to pathophysiological Ca(2+) signaling observed in immune disease and cancer.

Immature human dendritic cells enhance their migration through KCa3.1 channel activation

Migration capacity is essential for dendritic cells (DCs) to present antigen to T cells for the induction of immune response. The DC migration is supposed to be a calcium-dependent process, while not fully understood. Here, we report a role of the KCa3.1/IK1/SK4 channels in the migration capacity of both immature (iDC) and mature (mDC) human CD14(+)-derived DCs. KCa3.1 channels were shown to control the membrane potential of human DC and the Ca(2+) entry, which is directly related to migration capacities. The expression of migration marker such as CCR5 and CCR7 was modified in both types of DCs by TRAM-34 (100nM). But, only the migration of iDC was decreased by use of both TRAM-34 and KCa3.1 siRNA. Confocal analyses showed a close localization of CCR5 with KCa3.1 in the steady state of iDC. Finally, the implication of KCa3.1 seems to be limited to the migration capacities as T cell activation of DCs appeared unchanged. Altogether, these results demonstrated that KCa3.1 channels have a pro-migratory effect on iDC migration. Our findings suggest that KCa3.1 in human iDC play a major role in their migration and constitute an attractive target for the cell therapy optimization.

Changing calcium: CRAC channel (STIM and Orai) expression, splicing, and posttranslational modifiers

A wide variety of cellular function depends on the dynamics of intracellular Ca(2+) signals. Especially for relatively slow and lasting processes such as gene expression, cell proliferation, and often migration, cells rely on the store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) pathway, which is particularly prominent in immune cells. SOCE is initiated by the sensor proteins (STIM1, STIM2) located within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) registering the Ca(2+) concentration within the ER, and upon its depletion, cluster and trap Orai (Orai1-3) proteins located in the plasma membrane (PM) into ER-PM junctions. These regions become sites of highly selective Ca(2+) entry predominantly through Orai1-assembled channels, which, among other effector functions, is necessary for triggering NFAT translocation into the nucleus. What is less clear is how the spatial and temporal spread of intracellular Ca(2+) is shaped and regulated by differential expression of the individual SOCE genes and their splice variants, their heteromeric combinations and pre- and posttranslational modifications. This review focuses on principle mechanisms regulating expression, splicing, and targeting of Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels.

Changes in Membrane Receptors and Ion Channels as Potential Biomarkers for Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA), a degenerative joint condition, is currently difficult to detect early enough for any of the current treatment options to be completely successful. Early diagnosis of this disease could increase the numbers of patients who are able to slow its progression. There are now several diseases where membrane protein biomarkers are used for early diagnosis. The numbers of proteins in the membrane is vast and so it is a rich source of potential biomarkers for OA but we need more knowledge of these before they can be considered practical biomarkers. How are they best measured and are they selective to OA or even certain types of OA? The first step in this process is to identify membrane proteins that change in OA. Here, we summarize several ion channels and receptors that change in OA models and/or OA patients, and may thus be considered candidates as novel membrane biomarkers of OA.