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Zhang W, He J, Wang Y, Jin H, Wang R. Scientific status analysis of exercise benefits for vascular cognitive impairment: Evidence of neuroinflammation. J Neuroimmunol 2025; 402:578574. [PMID: 40086400 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2025.578574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2024] [Revised: 02/07/2025] [Accepted: 03/02/2025] [Indexed: 03/16/2025]
Abstract
Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is a syndrome characterized by cognitive decline resulting from insufficient perfusion to the entire brain or specific brain regions. The lack of a clear understanding of the mechanisms linking cerebrovascular disease to cognitive impairment has impeded the development of targeted treatments for VCI. Increasing evidence indicates that exercise may offer significant benefits for patients with VCI. This study explores how neuroinflammatory mechanisms mediate the effects of exercise on VCI, focusing on the broader biological processes involved. Exercise plays a crucial role in mitigating vascular risk factors, reducing oxidative stress, and promoting neurogenesis. Furthermore, exercise influences neuroinflammatory mediators and central immune cells via various signaling pathways. Different types and intensities of exercise, including resistance and endurance training, have been shown to differentially modulate neuroinflammation during the progression of VCI. This paper summarizes the current mechanisms of action and proposes exercise interventions targeting neuroinflammatory pathways, along with biomarker studies, to enhance our understanding of VCI pathogenesis and inform clinical practice. A more in-depth understanding of the inflammatory mechanisms underlying VCI may facilitate the development of targeted therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing He
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxin Wang
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - He Jin
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Rong Wang
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China; Beijing Institute of Major Brain Diseases, Beijing, China.
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2
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Wang J, Gao Y, Wang B, Zhang C, Yuan Y, Xu R, Ji H, Zhang X. Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Promotes Oligodendrocyte Maturation and Remyelination by Down-regulating the Interleukin-17A/Notch1 Signaling Pathway in Mice with Ischemic Stroke. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2025; 8:0676. [PMID: 40290135 PMCID: PMC12022504 DOI: 10.34133/research.0676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2025] [Accepted: 03/25/2025] [Indexed: 04/30/2025]
Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates that oligodendrocyte (OL) numbers and myelin as a dynamic cellular compartment perform a key role in the maintenance of neuronal function. Inhibiting white matter (WM) demyelination or promoting remyelination has garnered interest for its potential therapeutic strategy against ischemic stroke. Our previous work has shown that low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) could improve stroke recovery. However, it is unclear whether LIPUS can maintain WM integrity early after stroke or promote late WM repair. This study evaluated the efficacy of LIPUS on WM repair and long-term neurologic recovery after stroke. Male adult C57BL/6 mice underwent a focal cerebral ischemia model and were randomized to receive ultrasound stimulation (30 min once daily for 14 days). The effect of LIPUS on sensorimotor function was assessed by modified neurological severity score, rotarod test, grip strength test, and gait analysis up to 28 days after stroke. We found that ischemic stroke-induced WM damage was severe on day 7 and partially recovered on day 28. LIPUS prevented neuronal and oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) death during the acute phase of stroke (d7), protected WM integrity, and reduced brain atrophy and tissue damage during the recovery phase (d28). To further confirm the effect of LIPUS on remyelination, we assessed the proliferation and differentiation of OPCs. We found that LIPUS did not increase the number of OPCs (PDGFRα+ or NG2+), but markedly increased the number of newly produced mature OLs (APC+) and myelin protein levels. Mechanistically, LIPUS may promote OL maturation and remyelination by down-regulating the interleukin-17A/Notch1 signaling pathway. In summary, LIPUS can protect OLs and neurons early after stroke and promote long-term WM repair and functional recovery. LIPUS will be a viable strategy for the treatment of ischemic stroke in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Wang
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Yuxiao Gao
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Yi Yuan
- School of Electrical Engineering,
Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Rehabilitation and Neuromodulation of Hebei Province,
Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
| | - Renhao Xu
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Hui Ji
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Xiangjian Zhang
- Department of Neurology,
Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis and Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Neurology (Hebei Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
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Liu C, Chen X, Yang S, Wang X, Sun P, Wang J, Zhu G. Insight into cerebral microvessel endothelial regulation of cognitive impairment: A systematic review of the causes and consequences. Exp Neurol 2025; 385:115116. [PMID: 39675515 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2024.115116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2024] [Revised: 12/01/2024] [Accepted: 12/10/2024] [Indexed: 12/17/2024]
Abstract
Research on cognitive impairment (CI) has increasingly focused on the central nervous system, identifying numerous neuronal targets and circuits of relevance for CI pathogenesis and treatment. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) form a barrier between the peripheral and central nervous systems, constituting the primary component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and playing a vital role in maintaining neural homeostasis. Stemming from the recognition of the close link between vascular dysfunction and CI, in recent years intense research has been devoted to characterize the pathological changes and molecular mechanisms underlying BMEC dysfunction both during normal aging and in disorders of cognition such as Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. In this review, keywords such as "dementia", "cognitive impairment", and "endothelium" were used to search PubMed and Web of Science. Based on the literature thus retrieved, we first review some common triggers of CI, i.e., amyloid beta and tau deposition, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, hyperglycemia, viral infections, and neuroinflammation, and describe the specific mechanisms responsible for endothelial damage. Second, we review molecular aspects of endothelial damage leading to BBB disruption, neuronal injury, and myelin degeneration, which are crucial events underlying CI. Finally, we summarize the potential targets of endothelial damage in the development of cognitive dysfunction associated with Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and physiological aging. A thorough understanding of the induction mechanism and potential outcomes of microvascular endothelial damage is of great significance for the study of CI, to guide both diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for its prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Graduate School of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Xiaoyu Chen
- Graduate School of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Shaojie Yang
- Acupuncture and Moxibustion Clinical Medical Research Center of Anhui Province, The Second Affiliation Hospital of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230061, China
| | - Xuncui Wang
- Center for Xin'an Medicine and Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine of IHM, and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Brain diseases), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Peiyang Sun
- Acupuncture and Moxibustion Clinical Medical Research Center of Anhui Province, The Second Affiliation Hospital of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230061, China.
| | - Jingji Wang
- Acupuncture and Moxibustion Clinical Medical Research Center of Anhui Province, The Second Affiliation Hospital of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230061, China; Center for Xin'an Medicine and Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine of IHM, and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Brain diseases), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China.
| | - Guoqi Zhu
- Center for Xin'an Medicine and Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine of IHM, and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Brain diseases), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China.
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Zhuo G, Chen W, Hu Y, Zhang J, Zhu X, Su M, Fu Y, Lin W. Genetic Prediction of the Phosphate-to-Glucose Ratio Mediates the Association Between CXCL5 and Vascular Dementia. Brain Behav 2025; 15:e70378. [PMID: 40135623 PMCID: PMC11938108 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.70378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2025] [Accepted: 02/11/2025] [Indexed: 03/27/2025] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES A variety of observational studies suggest a possible connection between C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CXCL5) and vascular dementia (VaD), though the exact causal relationship is still uncertain. This research aims to investigate the causal connection between CXCL5 and VaD risk through a Mendelian randomization (MR) method and to examine the phosphate-to-glucose ratio as a possible mediator. METHODS Using summary-level data from genome-wide association studies (GWAS), we conducted a two-sample MR analysis to investigate the genetic prediction of CXCL5 and VaD. Horizontal pleiotropy, heterogeneity, and sensitivity analyses were also performed on the MR findings. Additionally, a two-step MR was utilized to quantify the proportion of the effect of CXCL5 on VaD mediated by the phosphate-to-glucose ratio. RESULTS MR analysis identified that higher levels of CXCL5 (IVW: p = 0.022, OR = 1.265, 95% CI = 1.034-1.547) increase the risk of VaD. Tests for horizontal pleiotropy (p > 0.05), heterogeneity (p > 0.05), and sensitivity analyses supported these findings. There is insufficient robust evidence to suggest that genetic predispositions for VaD have any significant impact on CXCL5 (IVW: p = 0.254). The phosphate-to-glucose ratio accounted for 11.1% of increase in the risk of VaD associated with CXCL5 (95% CI = -12.3% to 34.5%). CONCLUSION To conclude, our research confirms a causal link between CXCL5 and VaD and shows that the ratio of phosphate-to-glucose plays a mediating role in a segment of the risk effect of CXCL5 on VaD. However, most of the effects of CXCL5 on VaD are still not well understood. Additional studies are necessary to explore other potential mediators as risk factors. In clinical settings, individuals with abnormally elevated CXCL5 may need to be monitored for an increased risk of developing VaD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifeng Zhuo
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
- The First Clinical College of MedicineGuangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Yanan Hu
- Ziwei comunity health care service centerThe Second Affiliated HospitalCuhk‐Shenzhen Longgang District People's Hospital of ShenzhenShenzhenChina
| | - Jinzhi Zhang
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Xiaomin Zhu
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Mingyang Su
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Yulan Fu
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
| | - Wu Lin
- Department of NeurologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
- Scientific Laboratorial CentreGuangxi University of Chinese MedicineNanningChina
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5
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Zhang C, Qiu M, Fu H. Oligodendrocytes in central nervous system diseases: the effect of cytokine regulation. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:2132-2143. [PMID: 38488548 PMCID: PMC11034588 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.392854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytokines including tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, interferons, and chemokines are abundantly produced in various diseases. As pleiotropic factors, cytokines are involved in nearly every aspect of cellular functions such as migration, survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells in the central nervous system and play critical roles in the conduction of action potentials, supply of metabolic components for axons, and other functions. Emerging evidence suggests that both oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte precursor cells are vulnerable to cytokines released under pathological conditions. This review mainly summarizes the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells in central nervous system diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells contributes to our understanding of central nervous system diseases and offers insights into treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengfu Zhang
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders, The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
- Department of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and National Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Mengsheng Qiu
- Institute of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Organ Development and Regeneration of Zhejiang Province, College of Life and Environment Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Hui Fu
- Key Laboratory of Aging and Cancer Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
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Diany R, Gagliano Taliun SA. Systematic Review and Phenome-Wide Scans of Genetic Associations with Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2024; 8:e2300692. [PMID: 38935518 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202300692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is a heterogenous form of cognitive impairment that results from cerebrovascular disease. It is a result of both genetic and non-genetic factors. Although much research has been conducted on the genetic contributors to other forms of cognitive impairment (e.g. Alzheimer's disease), knowledge is lacking on the genetic factors associated with VCI. A better understanding of the genetics of VCI will be critical for prevention and treatment. To begin to fill this gap, the genetic contributors are reviewed with VCI from the literature. Phenome-wide scans of the identified genes are conducted and genetic variants identified in the review in large-scale resources displaying genetic variant-trait association information. Gene set are also carried out enrichment analysis using the genes identified from the review. Thirty one articles are identified meeting the search criteria and filters, from which 107 unique protein-coding genes are noted related to VCI. The phenome-wide scans and gene set enrichment analysis identify pathways associated with a diverse set of biological systems. This results indicate that genes with evidence of involvement in VCI are involved in a diverse set of biological functions. This information can facilitate downstream research to better dissect possible shared biological mechanisms for future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rime Diany
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, 2900 Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Sarah A Gagliano Taliun
- Department of Medicine & Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, 2900 Boulevard Edouard-Montpetit, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3J7, Canada
- Montreal Heart Institute, 5000 rue Bélanger, Montréal, Québec, H1T 1C8, Canada
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7
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Liu Z, Chai Z, Wu F, Zhang L, Wang X, Xu Z, Weng Y, Gong J, Shen J, Zhan R, Zhu Y. Transcriptomics and metabolomics reveal hypothalamic metabolic characteristics and key genes after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Metab Brain Dis 2024; 39:679-690. [PMID: 38842661 PMCID: PMC11233374 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-024-01363-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a serious hemorrhagic event with high mortality and morbidity. Multiple injurious events produced by SAH can lead to a series of pathophysiologic processes in the hypothalamus that can severely impact patients' life. These pathophysiologic processes usually result in physiologic derangements and dysfunction of the brain and multiple organs. This dysfunction involved multiple dimensions of the genome and metabolome. In our study, we induced the SAH model in rats to obtain hypothalamic tissue and serum. The samples were subsequently analyzed by transcriptomics and metabolomics. Next, the functional enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes and metabolites were performed by GO and KEGG pathway analysis. Through transcriptomic analysis of hypothalamus samples, 263 up-regulated differential genes, and 207 down-regulated differential genes were identified in SAH groups compared to Sham groups. In the KEGG pathway analysis, a large number of differential genes were found to be enriched in IL-17 signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and bile secretion. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry metabolomics technology was conducted on the serum of SAH rats and identified 11 up-regulated and 26 down-regulated metabolites in positive ion model, and 1 up-regulated and 10 down-regulated metabolites in negative ion model. KEGG pathways analysis showed that differentially expressed metabolites were mainly enriched in pathways of bile secretion and primary bile acid biosynthesis. We systematically depicted the neuro- and metabolism-related biomolecular changes occurring in the hypothalamus after SAH by performing transcriptomics and metabolomics studies. These biomolecular changes may provide new insights into hypothalamus-induced metabolic changes and gene expression after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongchi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Zhaohui Chai
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Fan Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Luyuan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Xiaoyi Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Zihan Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Yuxiang Weng
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Jiangbiao Gong
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Jian Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Renya Zhan
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China.
| | - Yu Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310000, China.
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Keep RF, Jones HC, Hamilton MG, Drewes LR. A year in review: brain barriers and brain fluids research in 2022. Fluids Barriers CNS 2023; 20:30. [PMID: 37085841 PMCID: PMC10120509 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-023-00429-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023] Open
Abstract
This aim of this editorial is to highlight progress made in brain barrier and brain fluid research in 2022. It covers studies on the blood-brain, blood-retina and blood-CSF barriers (choroid plexus and meninges), signaling within the neurovascular unit and elements of the brain fluid systems. It further discusses how brain barriers and brain fluid systems are impacted in CNS diseases, their role in disease progression and progress being made in treating such diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA.
| | | | - Mark G Hamilton
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Division of Neurosurgery, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Lester R Drewes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School Duluth, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
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