What do kids think about sexting?

The impact of Internet pornography on children and adolescents: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Young people's exposure to online pornographic material has increased in the past years. Its impact is a complex topic but an important issue due to growing concerns. Therefore, we reviewed the literature on Internet pornography consumption and its impact on children and adolescents. Furthermore, we examined young people's thoughts about pornography and their reasons for consumption.

METHOD

We performed a systematic literature search in the online databases ERIC, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, and PSYNDEX for peer-reviewed articles in English, published between 2000 and 2022 and additionally identified secondary references.

RESULTS

We could determine associations between pornography consumption and demographic variables (e.g., age, gender), personal characteristics (e.g., [sexual] sensation seeking, sexual interest and experience, general risk behavior), environmental variables (e.g., peers, family), attitudes (e.g., gender role attitudes, permissive sexual attitudes), behavior (e.g. sexual risk behaviour, sexting) and sexual aggression (e.g., sexual cybervictimization, grooming). Moreover, we found that girls have a more negative attitude towards pornography than boys who have an ambivalent opinion on the subject. Most adolescents are aware that the majority of pornographic material is exaggerated and unrealistic. Furthermore, pornography is not only watched out of curiosity and for sexual arousal but also used as a source of sexual information, especially by minority groups.

DISCUSSION

Many effects that impair children's development have been documented. The results found in this review are often contradictory. Therefore, further replication studies are needed. In addition, we propose several preventive measures, e.g., sexual health education at schools for both heterosexuals and LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) people.

Sexual Modesty in Sexual Expression and Experience: A Scoping Review, 2000 - 2021

Sexual modesty is the social, cultural, interpersonal, and psychological systems - defined by the tenets of Script Theory - that regulate individuals' sexual expression and experience at the social, legal, and interpersonal boundaries of acceptable/not-acceptable, private/public, and personal/social. Almost all aspects of sexual expression and experience are touched by the pervasive modesty standards for sexual communication, sexual display, sexual relations, and sexual behaviors. Sexual modesty influences an array of sexual and reproductive health outcomes. Many aspects of sexual modesty are enforced by legal as well as social, cultural, and religious proscriptions, including social shaming and ostracism as well as corporal and capital punishments. The purpose of this paper is to summarize a diverse literature related to sexual modesty from the years 2000 to 2021 in order to clarify its role in sexual health and sexual wellbeing and to identify directions for new research.

Lines of Action for Sexting Prevention and Intervention: A Systematic Review

Sexting has become a new form of intimate interaction in line with contemporary communication methods. This phenomenon often leads to positive outcomes, but it can also have negative repercussions depending on the situation, such as the context of the relationship, and whether it is consensual or coercive. Despite this, the main types of sexting behaviors (sending, receiving, and third-party forwarding) must be addressed in order to promote safe and healthy practices. However, the approach to tackling this phenomenon remains unclear. This systematic review sought to summarize the lines of action proposed or conducted in the scientific literature to address sexting, to help researchers and educators create and evaluate effective programs. A systematic search of 21 databases was conducted; only articles relating to sexting education, prevention, and intervention among child and adolescent populations were considered. In total, 456 articles were identified, 91 of which were included for the purposes of this research. The results highlighted a need to respond to the aforementioned sexting behaviors and to tackle the resulting conflict situations. Although interventions across different areas are recommended (e.g., health, family, policies, legal advice, law enforcement, technology experts, and even society as a whole), most studies agree that school is the most practical setting for intervention. Thus, the 15 lines of action identified in this systematic review must all be considered to effectively address sexting in childhood and adolescence.

Does sexting predict sexual behaviors among adolescents? Gender and race effects

INTRODUCTION

Sexting has emerged as a significant public health issue. Sexting is associated with substance use and other sexual behaviors, such as oral and vaginal sex (Houck et al., 2014; Temple & Choi, 2014). Current studies on sexting are often cross-sectional, limiting the ability to determine the temporal order of sexting and sexual behaviors. Additionally, studies focus on samples of young adults (Benotsch et al., 2013). The current study extends the literature by examining sexting and sexual behaviors longitudinally among adolescents and examines race and gender differences that play a role in sexting.

METHODS

The current study utilizes a prospective, 4-year longitudinal study of 1240 adolescents (aged 11-17) living in the Midwestern United States. Overall, the sample was 10% Black males, 11% Black females, 34% White Males, 31% White females, and 15% identified as Other. Analysis includes an autoregressive model with cross-lagged effects in MPlus.

RESULTS

Sexting (T1) predicted oral and sexual encounters (T4) for Black males, White males, and White females but not for Black females. Oral sex and sexual encounters (T4) did not predict any sexting (T1) for all groups. Therefore, analysis establishes sexting as an antecedent to sexual behaviors for Black males, White males, and White females. Sexting and sexual behaviors did not have a significant association for Black females.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies sexting as a precursor to sexual behaviors among adolescents. Therefore, when tailoring programs for safe sex among these populations, focusing on sexting may reduce other sexual risky behaviors.

Dream It, Do It? Associations between Pornography Use, Risky Sexual Behaviour, Sexual Preoccupation and Sexting Behaviours among Young Australian Adults

While sexting behaviours have attracted increasing research focus over the last decade as both normative and deviant forms of sexual activity, little attention has been paid to their potential associations with sexual preoccupation and heightened interest in sex. The current study sought to identify whether sexual preoccupation significantly predicts sending, receiving, and disseminating sexts, after controlling for pornography use and risky sexual behaviours. Young Australian adult participants (N = 654, 78.8% women) aged 18 to 34 (M = 19.78, SD = 1.66) completed an anonymous online self-report questionnaire regarding their engagement in sexting behaviours (sending, receiving, and dissemination), pornography use, risky sexual behaviours, and sexual preoccupation. Results showed that individuals with higher sexual preoccupation were more likely to engage in pornography use and risky sexual behaviours. Binary hierarchical logistic regressions revealed that sexual preoccupation predicted higher rates of sending and receiving sexts. However, sexual preoccupation did not significantly contribute to increased rates of sext dissemination. Our study illustrates the need to incorporate pornography viewing and sexting into the promotion of safe sexual behaviours in online and offline contexts, and the potential to utilise modern technology to negotiate safer sex practices.

The outcomes of sexting for children and adolescents: A systematic review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Given associated risks, sexting among children and adolescents has yielded significant interest in recent years. Several previous reviews have examined data on the prevalence, determinants, and correlates of sexting behaviour, however, in an ever-changing digital media context, a comprehensive overview of findings regarding its outcomes is warranted. This novel review aimed to systematically identify and conduct a narrative synthesis of empirical evidence regarding the outcomes of sexting involvement for children and adolescents.

METHODS

Four databases were searched for peer-reviewed literature on sexting, and 54 articles were identified for inclusion in the review. The quality of included studies was appraised using Dixon-Woods et al. (2006) five question prompts.

RESULTS

Four 'outcomes' categories were derived, namely, psychological (victimisation; sexual abuse/victimisation; mental health and quality of life; and emotional outcomes), behavioural (sexual activity, risk behaviours, and perpetration of abuse and harassment), relational (personal connections with others & reputational outcomes), and systems-level (distribution/public exposure of sexting content).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that the outcomes of sexting for children and adolescents (aged ≤19 years) are wide-ranging, some positive and desirable, others negative and unwanted. Furthermore, identified outcomes were located along a continuum spanning benefits for adolescents' well-being and relationships, stigma and associated difficulties, and serious harm or trauma. Limitations (e.g., methodological constraints of studies) and implications (e.g., informing harm prevention/intervention initiatives; further large-scale and replication studies) are discussed within.

What Do Peers Think About Sexting? Adolescents’ Views of the Norms Guiding Sexting Behavior

This study examined the content of injunctive peer norms (i.e., perceived peer approval) of sexting among Swedish adolescents. Written answers from 808 adolescents ( Mage = 14.22) to an open-ended question about peers’ views of sexting were analyzed qualitatively using content analysis. Eight categories were distinguished for when and why sexting is acceptable or not in the peer group. A substantial share of adolescents believed their peers approve of sexting, especially if sexting occurs within trusted relationships and when all parties have consented. A large share of adolescents described that peers were non-accepting of sexting, emphasizing that it can be spread to others. The participants also suggested that sexting is seen as a gendered phenomenon surrounded by sexual double standards, with girls at more risk of negative consequences. Some participants emphasized the peer view that adolescents sext to seek attention, and some emphasized that sexting is viewed as an enjoyable activity. Several of these categories’ likelihood to be mentioned was related to the adolescents’ age, gender, and prior experience of sexting. We concluded that adolescents might have a hard time navigating the social context of sexting, given the conflicting and gendered messages from peers.

Patterns of sexting and sexual behaviors in youth: A Latent Class Analysis

INTRODUCTION

A sizable minority of youth are sexting; however there are likely large individual differences in sexting and sexual behaviors, yet to be captured. A Latent Class Analysis was used to identify subgroups of youth characterized by differential engagement in sexting and sexual behaviors.

METHODS

Participants were an ethnically diverse sample of 894 youth (55.8% female; Mage = 17.04, SD = 0.77) from a longitudinal survey study in southeast Texas. Latent classes were identified through participants' responses to the following indicator variables: sending, receiving, and requesting sexts, sexual activity, contraception use, ≥ three partners, and substance use prior to sexual activity. Gender, ethnicity, impulsivity, and living situation were analyzed as predictors, and depressive symptoms as an outcome, of class membership.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed four distinct classes: No sexting-Low sex (42.2%), Sexting-Low sex (4.5%), No sexting-Moderately risky sex (28.3%), and Sexting-Moderately risky sex (24.9%). Gender and ethnicity predicted class membership wherein females and ethnic minority youth were less likely to be in groups displaying higher rates of sexting. Impulsivity and living situation predicted class membership, such that youth reporting higher impulsivity and living in a situation other than with two biological parents were less likely to be in classes displaying low sexting and sexual behaviors. Group membership predicted depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that not all youth who are sexting are having sex, and not all youth who are having sex are sexting. Evidence of individual differences in youth sexual behaviors should inform educational initiatives aimed at teaching youth about sexual and online health.

Views and Attitudes about Youth Self-Produced Sexual Images among Professionals with Expertise in Child Sexual Abuse

The proliferation of youth self-produced sexual images (SPSI) raises complex practice challenges for professionals supporting victims of sexual abuse. This paper examines the views and perspectives about youth SPSI among professionals with expertise in child sexual abuse, who in the course of a study on child sexual abuse images, commonly raised SPSI without prompting. Eighty-four participants from three professional sectors (Internet child exploitation law enforcement, child protection, and children's mental health) took part in 12 focus groups, the analysis of which indicates that most participants regarded youth SPSI as a complex social phenomenon, and had trouble fitting it into their existing professional expertise. Participants were immersed in larger cultural narratives about youth sexual agency, the dangers of constantly evolving technology, and the digital age compounding generational differences. Lack of clarity about when and whether a young person requires support and/or legal intervention arose from a tangled web of punitive, permissive, and ambivalent perspectives on youth SPSI. Professionals experienced with victims of sexual abuse focused on SPSI as opposed to child abuse images, and struggled to distinguish between what is normal versus problematic youth sexuality in the digital age, confounding efforts to settle on appropriate legal and support responses and interventions.

Prevalence of sending, receiving and forwarding sexts among youths: A three-level meta-analysis

By systematic review with a three-level, mixed-effects meta-analysis, this paper examines the prevalence of sexting experiences among youths aimed at analyzing conceptual and methodological moderators that might explain its heterogeneity. A search was conducted of five bibliographic databases and grey literature up until February 2020. The risk of bias in primary studies was assessed. A total of seventy-nine articles met the set inclusion criteria. Mean prevalences for sending, receiving and forwarding sexts were .14 (95% CI: .12, .17), .31 (95% CI: .26, .36) and .07 (95% CI: .05, .09), respectively, expressed as fractions over one. Moderator analyses showed that all sexting experiences increased with age (e.g., the mean prevalence for sending sexts at the age of 12 was .04, whereas, at the age of 16, it was .21) and year of data collection (e.g., the mean prevalence for sending sexts in studies collecting data in 2009 was .07, whereas, in studies collecting data in 2018, it was .33). Subgroup analysis revealed that studies with probabilistic samples led to significantly lower mean prevalences for the sexting experiences of sending (.08, 95% CI: .06, .11), receiving (.19, 95% CI: .15, .24) and forwarding sexts (.04, 95% CI: .03, .07). Self-reported administration procedures also led to more homogeneous prevalence estimates than interviews. Prevalence estimates also varied according to the type of media content (e.g., the mean prevalence for sending sexual text messages was .22, whereas, for sending sexual images or videos, it was .12). Overall, our meta-analysis results suggest high and increasing prevalences of sending and receiving sexts among youths.

Longitudinal relationships between sexting and involvement in both bullying and cyberbullying

INTRODUCTION

Sexting is a new way to explore sexuality among adolescents that can be associated with bullying behaviors. Previous studies have focused on peer-victimization but relationships between bullying and different forms of sexting have not been explored. This study evaluates the reciprocal relationships between the perpetration of traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and four forms of sexting (sending, receiving, third-party forwarding, and receiving sexts via an intermediary).

METHODS

The sample consisted of 1736 Spanish High School students (46.3% female; M_age = 13.60, SD = 1.25). Four direct questions were used to assess sexting, the EBIPQ to measure traditional bullying and the ECIPQ to evaluate cyberbullying. These measures were completed twice, four months apart. A cross-lagged panel analysis evaluated the reciprocal associations of all study measures.

RESULTS

Traditional bullying and cyberbullying were positively, reciprocally associated with each other. Generally, those young people who engaged in sexting at T1 were more likely to report engaging in sexting at T2. Third-party forwarding of sexts (forwarding on sexts which have been sent to a young person by others) displays clear relationships with bullying. Young people who reported using traditional bullying behaviours at T1 were more likely to report third-party forwarding of sexual content at T2. Bullies are more likely to later report third-party forwarding of sexts.

CONCLUSIONS

A focus on bullying behavior may be important for intervention efforts targeting to prevent possible negative outcomes of engaging in sexting. Recommendations are provided for educational and prevention efforts.

Management of non-consensually shared youth-produced sexual images: A Delphi study with adolescents as experts

There is an increased availability of online child abuse images, a proportion of which is created by young people in coercive and non- coercive relationships (sexting).

OBJECTIVES

This Delphi study with adolescents as "experts" who had taken and shared sexual images, was conducted to identify appropriate responses to sexting where images are shared without consent and identify indicators of distress and ways to facilitate disclosure when the sharing of images causes anxiety or is associated with further victimization.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

124 adolescents from the United Kingdom completed an online survey. All self-identified as taking and sharing sexual images of themselves. 45 provided full survey responses (73% female; mean age 16.24) and of these 23 completed the second round. Recruitment was through social media and local schools.

METHODS

An online two-round Delphi method was completed using a vignettes-based questionnaire. To assess consensus, a defined average percentage agreement (80% cut-off) was used. Qualitative content analysis identified relevant themes in responses to Round 1 which informed the Round 2 items.

RESULTS

In the first round 60 items were identified that endorsed views of problem identification, facilitation of disclosure, proportionate responding, and problem management. Overall, participants agreed that the clear majority of statements identified in Round 2 were important and thus achieved consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

This study represents a novel and inclusive approach through the formation of an expert panel of young people. These views may inform appropriate victim-centered management of cases where images have been shared without permission.

Sexting Among Adolescents: The Emotional Impact and Influence of the Need for Popularity

Sexting refers to the exchange of sexual content material via technological devices. The definitions of this phenomenon vary greatly, mainly, depending on the types of sexting: primary and secondary. Besides the above, there is no common perspective on whether sexting is a risk behavior that entails some type of impact by itself or not and, in such a case, whether this impact varies according to gender. In addition, the need to be popular has shown to be a factor that could increase the probability of being involved in sexting. The present study analyzes the potential emotional impact of sexting as well as the effect of the need for popularity on this phenomenon and if it varies according to gender. The sample comprised 2,356 high school students (46.8% female, 53.2% male; age range 11-18 years old, M = 13.72; SD = 1.31) belonging to 12 compulsory secondary education (ESO) schools from the south of Spain. To assess sexting implication, four questions were presented to participants (sending, receiving, forwarding, and receiving sexts via intermediary). Scales, self-report, about emotional impact (depressed, annoyed, and active) and need for popularity were also applied. The results obtained show that, although sexting has a clear emotional impact on adolescents, it does not appear to generate a negative impact among those involved, at least in the short term. Concretely, this phenomenon seems to trigger emotions related to activation in boys and girls (I feel lively, energetic, satisfied, ready, determined, active). Additionally, with respect to the need for popularity, its relevance, specially, in relation to active emotional impact has been confirmed by the analyses. Statistical models found for boys and girls were similar. In addition, some differences in emotional impact by gender were found, girls feeling more depressed and annoyed in secondary sexting, and boys more active regarding both types of sexting.

Association of Sexting With Sexual Behaviors and Mental Health Among Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

IMPORTANCE

Sexting is the exchange of sexual messages, photographs, or videos via technological devices and is common and increasing among youth. Although various studies have examined the association between sexting, sexual behaviors, and mental health, results are mixed.

OBJECTIVE

To provide a meta-analytic synthesis of studies examining the associations between sexting, sexual behavior, and mental health using sex, age, publication date, and study methodological quality as moderators.

DATA SOURCES

Electronic searches were conducted in April 2018 in MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, and Web of Science, yielding 1672 nonduplicate records.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies were included if participants were younger than 18 years and an association between sexting and sexual behaviors or mental health risk factors was examined.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

All relevant data were extracted by 2 independent reviewers. Random-effects meta-analyses were used to derive odds ratios (ORs).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Sexual behavior (sexual activity, multiple sexual partners, lack of contraception use) and mental health risk factors (anxiety/depression, delinquent behavior, and alcohol, drug use, and smoking).

RESULTS

Participants totaled 41 723 from 23 included studies. The mean (range) age was 14.9 (11.9-16.8) years, and 21 717 (52.1%) were female. Significant associations were observed between sexting and sexual activity (16 studies; OR, 3.66; 95% CI, 2.71-4.92), multiple sexual partners (5 studies; OR, 5.37; 95% CI, 2.72-12.67), lack of contraception use (6 studies; OR, 2.16; 95% CI, 1.08-4.32), delinquent behavior (3 studies; OR, 2.50; 95% CI, 1.29-4.86), anxiety/depression (7 studies; OR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.41-2.28), alcohol use (8 studies; OR, 3.78; 95% CI, 3.11-4.59), drug use (5 studies; OR, 3.48; 95% CI, 2.24-5.40), and smoking behavior (4 studies; OR, 2.66; 95% CI, 1.88-3.76). Moderator analyses revealed that associations between sexting, sexual behavior, and mental health factors were stronger in younger compared to older adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Results of this meta-analysis suggest that sexting is associated with sexual behavior and mental health difficulties, especially in younger adolescents. Longitudinal research is needed to assess directionality of effects and to analyze the mechanisms by which sexting and its correlates are related. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of digital health, safety, and security are needed to help youth navigate their personal, social, and sexual development in a technological world.

Teenagers, Sexting, and the Law

The phenomenon of teen sexting emerged as a result of the proliferation of digital technology. More than 40 studies have established that teen sexting occurs relatively frequently and is a rising trend, commensurate with the ubiquity of smartphone ownership in teens. Studies have shown that sexting is associated with incidences of increased sexual behavior. US state laws on sexting vary widely, from decriminalization to misdemeanor charges or prosecution for child pornography with harsh sentences. Teen behavior and digital invention have outpaced the development of new laws, and this has the potential to have dire legal ramifications for teens. Separating consensual sexting from nonconsensual sexting and actual child pornography is a critical next step for law enforcement agencies and policy makers to catch up to technology. In this article, we argue that consensual teen-to-teen sexting does not warrant law enforcement involvement but rather is a health and education issue that is better addressed at home, in schools, and in primary care.