Comparative study for degradation of industrial dyes by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes with BDD anode in a laboratory stirred tank reactor

Copper-PANI-graphite HB2 composite for eco-friendly efficient degradation of textile dyes: Advancements in wastewater treatment enhanced by solar radiation

This research aimed to assess the potential of Cu50PANI@UG composite for sunlight drive photocatalytic dye degradation, targeting specifically Thymol Blue (TB) and Black NT (BNT) dyes and their mixture (DM). The Cu50PANI@UG composite was successfully synthesized via electropolymerization in acetonitrile/sulfuric acid mixture under atmospheric conditions. Photocatalytic experiments were conducted by exposing aqueous dye solutions to sunlight. N,N-dimethyl-p-nitrosoaniline (RNO) served as a molecular probe for detecting hydroxyl radicals (•OH). Additionally, experiments capturing free radicals were performed to identify active components, with a concomitant proposal of plausible degradation reaction mechanism for the Photo-Fenton-Like degradation into the Cu50PANI@UG composite + H2O2 + hv reaction system. Various operating parameters affecting dye degradation were evaluated, including catalyst dosage (from 0.27 to 0.67 g L-1), H2O2 concentration (from 16 to 64 mM), pH (from 3.0 to 9.0), and dye concentration (from 25 to 100 mg L-1). Optimization of key parameters such as pH, catalyst dosage, and H2O2 concentration was conducted. The highest degradation efficiency, ca. 100% of DM dye, was achieved within 35 min under optimized conditions, using Cu50PANI@UG composite as a catalytic precursor. These conditions were determined as follows: Catalyst dosage = 0.67 g L-1, pH = 3.0-6.0, H2O2 = 32-64 mM, and irradiation time of 35 min. The degradation percentage under the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was utilized as a statistical tool to correlate influential parameters. Four consecutive reusability trials were performed to assess catalyst stability.

Efficient electrochemical advanced degradation of Red CL and Red WB dyes from the tanning industry using a boron-doped diamond anode

Electrochemical oxidation (EO), electro-Fenton (EF), and photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) with a BDD anode have been comparatively assessed to remediate solutions of Red CL and/or Red WB azo dyes from real raw water. For the EO process in 50 mM Na2SO4 at pH 3.0, the main oxidant was the heterogeneous •OH generated at the anode, whereas in EF and PEF, the cathodic production of H2O2 and the addition of 0.50 mM Fe2+ catalyst additionally originated homogeneous •OH that enhanced the oxidation of organics. In PEF, the solution was illuminated with a 6 W UVA light. An almost total discoloration was always found operating with a 1:1 mixture of 200 mg L-1 of both dyes in 60 min, whose efficiency increased in the order of EO < EF < PEF. The HPLC analysis of the dye mixture treated by PEF disclosed that its degradation process agreed with its discoloration. A high 74% of COD was reduced due to the oxidative action of hydroxyl radicals and the photolysis of final Fe(III)-carboxylate species with UVA irradiation. The process was accompanied by an energy consumption of 0.76 kWh (g COD)-1, a value similar to the energy consumed by the applied UVA light.

Critical review on electrooxidation and chemical reduction of azo dyes: Economic approach

Effective degradation technologies have been extensively investigated and used to remove azo dyes from wastewater for decades. However, no review dealing with both electrooxidation and chemical reduction of azo dyes from an economic and, therefore, application-relevant perspective has been found in the current literature. A novelty of this review article consists not only in the brief summarization and comparison of both methods but mainly in the evaluation of their economic side. Based on the literature survey of the last 15 years, the costs of treatment approaches published in individual research articles have been summarized, and the missing data have been calculated. A broad spectrum of advanced electrode materials and catalysts have been developed and tested for the treatment, specifically aiming to enhance the degradation performance. An outline of the global prices of electrode materials, reducing agents, and basic chemicals is involved. All additional costs are described in depth in this review. The advantages and disadvantages of respective methods are discussed. It was revealed that effective and cheap treatment approaches can be found even in advanced degradation methods. Based on the collected data, electrooxidation methods offer, on average, 30 times cheaper treatment of aqueous solutions. Concerning chemical reduction, only ZVI provided high removal of azo dyes at prices <100 $ per kg of azo dye. The factors affecting total prices should also be considered. Therefore, the basic diagram of the decision-making process is proposed. In the conclusion, challenges, future perspectives, and critical findings are described.

Conversion of locally available materials to biochar and activated carbon for drinking water treatment

For environmental sustainability and to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs), drinking water treatment must be done at a reasonable cost with minimal environmental impact. Therefore, treating contaminated drinking water requires materials and approaches that are inexpensive, produced locally, and effortlessly. Hence, locally available materials and their derivatives, such as biochar (BC) and activated carbon (AC) were investigated thoroughly. Several researchers and their findings show that the application of locally accessible materials and their derivatives are capable of the adsorptive removal of organic and inorganic contaminants from drinking water. The application of locally available materials such as lignocellulosic materials/waste and its thermo-chemically derived products, including BC and AC were found effective in the treatment of contaminated drinking water. Thus, this review aims to thoroughly examine the latest developments in the use of locally accessible feedstocks for tailoring BC and AC, as well as their features and applications in the treatment of drinking water. We attempted to explain facts related to the potential mechanisms of BC and AC, such as complexation, co-precipitation, electrostatic interaction, and ion exchange to treat water, thereby achieving a risk-free remediation approach to polluted water. Additionally, this research offers guidance on creating efficient household treatment units based on the health risks associated with customized adsorbents and cost-benefit analyses. Lastly, this review work discusses the current obstacles for using locally accessible materials and their thermo-chemically produced by-products to purify drinking water, as well as the necessity for technological interventions.

Application of Pd-Sn modified Ru-Ir electrode for treating high chlorine ammonia-nitrogen wastewater

Electro-catalytic technology is a promising approach for wastewater treatment, owing to its easy operation, minimal generation of secondary pollution, small foot-print and rapid start-up. In this work, the chlorine evolution potential of the Pd-Sn modified ruthenium(Ru)-iridium(Ir) electrode was investigated for the electro-catalytic treatment of high chlorine ammonia-nitrogen wastewater. The effect of reaction conditions on the removal of ammonia-nitrogen, kinetics and apparent activation energy of ammonia-nitrogen removal were studied. The possible denitrification process of high chlorine ammonia-nitrogen wastewater was discussed. The results indicated that the chlorine evolution potential of the Pd-Sn modified Ru-Ir electrode was 1.0956 V(vs. SCE). The electro-catalytic treatment of high chlorine ammonia-nitrogen conformed to zero-order kinetic law, and the apparent activation energy of removal process was 14.089 kJ/mol. With a current was 0.5 A, the removal efficiency of ammonia-nitrogen could achieve 100% at a reaction time of 40 min. Indirect oxidation played an essential role in the electro-catalytic ammonia-nitrogen removal using the Pd-Sn modified Ru-Ir electrode. This paper demonstrated that the electro-catalytic technology was a promising approach for efficiently treating the high chlorine ammonia-nitrogen wastewater.

Recent developments on advanced oxidation processes for degradation of pollutants from wastewater with focus on antibiotics and organic dyes

The existence of various pollutants in water environment contributes to global pollution and poses significant threats to humans, wildlife, and other living beings. The emergence of an effective, realistic, cost-effective, and environmentally acceptable technique to treat wastewater generated from different sectors is critical for reducing pollutant accumulation in the environment. The electrochemical advanced oxidation method is a productive technology for treating hazardous effluents because of its potential benefits such as lack of secondary pollutant and high oxidation efficiency. Recent researches on advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in the period of 2018-2022 are highlighted in this paper. This review emphasizes on recent advances in electro-oxidation (EO), ozone oxidation, sonolysis, radiation, electro-Fenton (EF), photolysis and photocatalysis targeted at treating pharmaceuticals, dyes and pesticides polluted effluents. In the first half of the review, the concept of the AOPs are discussed briefly. Later, the influence of increasing current density, pH, electrode, electrolyte and initial concentration of effluents on degradation are discussed. Lastly, previously reported designs of electrochemical reactors, as well as data on intermediates generated and energy consumption during the electro oxidation and Fenton processes are discussed. According to the literature study, the electro-oxidation technique is more appropriate for organic compounds, whilst the electro-Fenton technique appear to be more appropriate for more complex molecules.

Comparative study of the removal of direct red 23 by anodic oxidation, electro-Fenton, photo-anodic oxidation and photoelectro-Fenton in chloride and sulfate media

This study aims to compare the efficiency of anodic oxidation with electrogenerated H₂O₂ (AO-H₂O₂), electro-Fenton (EF), and their association with UV irradiation (photo anodic oxidation (PAO), and photo electro-Fenton (PEF) for the removal of Direct Red 23 from wastewater using a BDD/carbon felt cell in chloride and sulfate medium and in their combination. The effect of the supporting electrolyte was investigated in AO-H₂O₂ and EF processes. High discoloration efficiency was obtained in chloride media while a higher mineralization rate was achieved in sulfate media. The EF process reached higher total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency than AO-H₂O₂. 90% TOC removal rate was achieved by the EF against 82% by AO-H₂O₂ in sulfate media. The influence of using the mixt supporting electrolyte formed of 75% Na₂SO₄ + 25% NaCl was found to have beneficial effect on TOC removal, achieving 89% and 97% by AO-H₂O₂ and EF, respectively. High currents led to higher mineralization rates while low currents yielded to a higher mineralization current efficiency (MCE%) and lower energy consumption (EC). UV irradiation enhanced process efficiency. Mineralization efficiency followed the sequence: AO-H₂O₂ < PAO < EF < PEF. The PEF process was able to remove TOC completely at 5 mA cm^-2 current density and 6 h of electrolysis with a MCE% value of 16.57% and EC value of 1.29 kWh g^-1 TOC removed.

Decolorization of textile wastewater by electrooxidation process using different anode materials: Statistical optimization

The presence of reactive dyes in textile wastewater is a serious environmental concern due to their associated mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. The present study aims to analyze the effect of different anodic materials on the decolorization of a real textile wastewater effluent. For this purpose, four different anodic materials-TiO2-coated platine, TiO2-coated ruthenium dioxide (RuO2) (viz., RuO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and graphite-were connected, respectively, to titanium dioxide (TiO2) used as a cathode electrode. Color and cost optimization studies were performed using the response surface methodology and the Box-Behnken experimental design (BBD). According to ANOVA results, the R2 values for Pt/TiO2, RuO2/TiO2, TiO2/TiO2, and graphite/TiO2 electrode pairs were found to be 97.4%, 93.8%, 92.44%, and 92.2%, respectively, indicating a good compatibility as it is close to one. The results show that color removal efficiencies at the optimal conditions were 86.3%, 90.8%, 91.5%, and 93.6% for Pt/TiO2, graphite/TiO2, TiO2/TiO2, and RuO2/TiO2, respectively. Furthermore, energy consumption cost at the optimum conditions was also evaluated, and the results were as follows: Pt/TiO2 (0.95 €/m3), graphite/TiO2 (0.74 €/m3), TiO2/TiO2 (0.31 €/m3), and RuO2/TiO2 (0.26 €/m3). Consequently, this research paper shows that all of the tested anodic materials give satisfactory color removal efficiencies higher than 86%. When energy consumption and color removal are considered together, the use of TiO2/TiO2 and RuO2/TiO2 pairs would be preferred. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Anodic contribution was investigated for decolorization of textile wastewater by electrooxidation process. Graphite, TiO2-coated Pt, TiO2-coated RuO2, and TiO2 were used as anode materials. Highest color removal with lowest energy consumption was achieved with TiO2-coated RuO2 anode material (93.6%).

Irreversible inactivation of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and its genes in water by photo-electro-oxidation and photo-electro-Fenton - Processes action modes

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae is a critical priority pathogen according to the World Health Organization's classification. Effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants (EWWTP) may be a route for K. pneumoniae dissemination. Herein, the inactivation of this microorganism in simulated EWWTP by the photo-electro-oxidation (PEO) and photo-electro-Fenton (PEF) processes was evaluated. Firstly, the disinfecting ability and action pathways of these processes were established. PEO achieved faster K. pneumoniae inactivation (6 log units in 75 min of treatment) than the PEF process (6 log units in 105 min of treatment). PEO completely inactivated K. pneumoniae due to the simultaneous action of UVA light, electrogenerated H₂O_2, and anodic oxidation pathways. The slower inactivation of K. pneumoniae when using PEF was related to interfering screen effects of iron oxides on light penetration and the diffusion of the bacteria to the anode. However, both PEO and PEF avoided the recovery and regrowth of treated bacteria (with no detectable increase in the bacteria concentration after 24 h of incubation). In addition to the bacteria evolution, the effect of treatment processes on the resistance gene was examined. Despite inactivation of K. pneumoniae by PEF was slower than by PEO, the former process induced a stronger degrading action on the gene, conferring the resistance to carbapenems (PEF had a Ct value of 24.92 cycles after 105 min of treatment, while PEO presented a Ct of 19.97 cycles after 75 min). The results of this research indicate that electrochemical processes such as PEO and PEF are highly effective at dealing with resistant K. pneumoniae in the EWWTP matrix.

Electrochemical Degradation of Crystal Violet Using Ti/Pt/SnO2 Electrode

Today, organic wastes (paints, pigments, etc.) are considered to be a major concern for the pollution of aqueous environments. Therefore, it is essential to find new methods to solve this problem. This research was conducted to study the use of electrochemical processes to remove organic pollutants (e.g., crystal violet (CV)) from aqueous solutions. The galvanostatic electrolysis of CV by the use of Ti/Pt/SnO2 anode, were conducted in an electrochemical cell with 100 mL of solution using Na2SO4 and NaCl as supporting electrolyte, the effect of the important electrochemical parameters: current density (20–60 mA cm−2), CV concentration (10–50 mg L−1), sodium chloride concentration (0.01–0.1 g L−1) and initial pH (2 to 10) on the efficiency of the electrochemical process was evaluated and optimized. The electrochemical treatment process of CV was monitored by the UV-visible spectrometry and the chemical oxygen demand (COD). After only 120 min, in a 0.01 mol L−1 NaCl solution with a current density of 50 mA cm−2 and a pH value of 7 containing 10 mg L−1 CV, the CV removal efficiency can reach 100%, the COD removal efficiency is up to 80%. The process can therefore be considered as a suitable process for removing CV from coloured wastewater in the textile industries.

Heterogeneous electro-Fenton catalysis with self-supporting CFP@MnO2-Fe3O4/C cathode for shale gas fracturing flowback wastewater

Self-supporting electrodes have triggered great interests in improving electro-Fenton (EF) system for degradation of refractory organic pollutants. In this work, a novel self-supporting carbon fiber paper (CFP) electrode modified by transition metals, e.g. Fe and Mn, was fabricated and employed as a heterogeneous EF cathode. The prepared electrode exhibited excellent degradation for a number of typical organic pollutants along with superior stability. Remarkably, a high removal efficiency was achieved in the EF treatment of shale gas fracturing flowback wastewater. Results indicated that 65.2% TOC and 74.8% COD were eliminated after 4 h degradation. The residual COD value of the real wastewater was 80 mg L^-1, meeting the emission requirement of the integrated wastewater discharge standard (COD＜100 mg L^-1) with a low specific energy consumption of 6.9kWhkg^-1COD^-1. This work demonstrates a competing alternative for efficient decontamination of real wastewater using an electro-Fenton strategy with a low-cost electrode.

Discoloration of azo dye Brown HT using different advanced oxidation processes

In this study, known combinations of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs, namely Electro-Fenton (EF), Photo-Electro-Fenton (PEF), Electro-Oxidation (EO), and EO/Ozone (O₃) were compared for the discoloration of tannery industry azo dye Brown HT (BHT). The different AOPs were tested in a 0.160 L batch electrochemical stirred thank reactor using Boron Doped Diamond (BDD) electrodes. The influence of parameters such as the current density (j) and the initial BHT concentration were to exanimated on the efficiency of all the tested processes. The oxidation tendency of EF, and PEF were compared with those of EO and O₃, based on their efficiency for BHT discoloration, which resulted as PEF > EF > EO > O₃. The AOPs showing the best oxidation performance was PEF which, using Na₂SO₄ (0.05 M) electrolyte solution and Fe²⁺ (0.5 mM), pH 3.0, j = 71 mA cm^-2, and 500 rpm process, achieved 100% discoloration and 80% chemical oxygen demand (COD) abatement after 60 min of treatment for two initial BHT concentrations (50 and 80 mg L^-1). The process accounted for a current efficiency of 30% and energy consumption 2.25 kWh (g COD)^-1 through the discoloration test. The azo dye gradually degraded, yielding non-toxic oxalic, oxamic, and glyoxylic acid, whose Fe(III) complexes were quickly photolyzed.

Electrocoagulation treatment of industrial tannery wastewater employing a modified rotating cylinder electrode reactor

The removal of highly concentrated pollutants, presented in a wastewater mixture from industrial tannery effluents by electrocoagulation, was examined. All experiments were carried out in a rotating cylinder electrode reactor with six aluminum anodes and two sedimentation tanks. The influence of the applied current density and rotational speed on the removal efficiency of an electrocoagulation reactor was studied. Chemical oxygen demand was diminished at 70%, while total suspended solids, chromium (III) and turbidity were almost eliminated (>90%) with 6 mA cm^-2 of the applied current density. Additionally, a homogeneous cathodic deposit was obtained at the end of each test. Those cathodic deposits and flocs were analyzed by SEM-EDS. Calculations of the cell energy consumption and the produced aluminum cost were estimated for 6 mA cm^-2 and 100 rpm, obtaining 1.98 kWh m^-3 and $0.7 USD m^-3, respectively.

Occurrence, statutory guideline values and removal of contaminants of emerging concern by Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes: A review

A wide variety of chemical compounds are used in human activities; however, part of these compounds reach surface water, groundwater and even water considered for potable uses. Due to the limited efficiency of water treatment by the Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants, the presence of these compounds in natural and human consumption waters can be very harmful due to their high persistence and adverse effects; these characteristics define the contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Water treatment by Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes (EAOPs) has been evaluated as a promising process for the removal of persistent and recalcitrant organic contaminants. With this background, the present review aims to gather studies and information published between 2015 and 2020 regarding the occurrence of CECs in surface, potable and groundwater, its treatment by EAOPs, the main operating conditions and by-product generation of EAOPs, contaminant toxicity assessments and international statutory guideline values concerning CEC standards and allowable concentrations in the environment and treated drinking water. Therefore, in this review it was found that the compounds bisphenol A (BPA), diethyltoluamide (DEET), 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), carbamazepine, caffeine and atrazine were the most frequently detected in water sources, with concentrations ranging from 35.54-4800, 1.21-98, 0.005-38.5, 5-742.904, 0.0071-586, 0.89-1040, and 100-323 (ng L-1), respectively. Among the operational conditions of EAOPs, current density, pH and oxidant concentration are the main operational parameters that have an influence on these treatment technologies, besides the by-products generated, which might be removed by the integration of EAOPs with biological digestion treatments. Regarding the values of water quality standards, many CECs do not have established standard allowable concentration values, which represents a concern toward the possible toxic effects of these compounds on non-target organisms.

An abundant porous biochar material derived from wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) with high adsorption performance for three organic dyes

In this study, an activated wakame biochar material (AWBM) was prepared by a one-step calcination and activation method, whose adsorption performances for methylene blue (MB), Rhodamine B (RB) and malachite green (MG) were also analyzed. The results showed AWBM was a mesoporous fluffy structure material with a higher specific surface (1156.25 m2/g), exhibiting superior adsorption capacities for MB (841.64 mg/g), RB (533.77 mg/g) and MG (4066.96 mg/g), respectively. In addition, FT-IR analysis showed that AWBM possessed abundant active groups (such as -OH, -CO and -CH), further enhancing the adsorption efficiencies. The Langmuir model could better fit the three dyes adsorption isotherms process using AWBM, and the Pseudo-second-order model could better describe the adsorption kinetic experimental data. The thermodynamic analysis showed that the three dyes adsorption using AWBM was spontaneous endothermic reaction. This study suggests AWBM has enormous potential in the application of removing organic dyes from wastewater.

Screen-printed electrodes-based technology: Environmental application to real time monitoring of phenolic degradation by phytoremediation with horseradish roots

The following is a description of a simple strategy for monitoring phenolic pollutants from highly-contaminated water samples. These phenolic compounds are removed from tap water using horseradish roots (Raphanus sativus) that contain peroxidase as catalyst and H₂O₂ to generate hydroxyl radicals. The later (^•OH) acts on the aromatic structure, causing them to degrade to non-toxic by-products. The tool used to follow up the evolution of the process is based on screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) as electrochemical sensor for simultaneous detection of hydroquinone (Epa at 0.047 V), m-cresol (Epa at 0.506 V) and 4-nitrophenol (Epa at 0.696 V) by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). This electroanalytical methodology enables close monitoring of the situation and rapid sensor response time. Furthermore, this direct methodology works for opaque and heterogeneous samples, as tap water with chopped horseradish roots, without any treatment of samples previously to the analysis. For better knowledge of the electrodic-transfer process, the electrochemical behavior of these phenolic compounds by cyclic voltammetry (CV) is also included. This simple methodology shows a low detection limit (below to 5 μM) and an excellent selectivity (peak potential separation between them up to 200 mV or greater) in a linear range of three orders of concentration (from 1-5 μM to 1 mM) for all of the analytes studied. The DPV responses of the phenolic compounds during the phytoremediation process are simultaneously monitored by this direct, cheap, reproducible (RSD < 2.3%) and rapid DPV-SPCE electroanalytical methodology. Portable device as electrochemical sensor with this optimized and validated technology can be applied for decentralized analysis, on-site assays and rapid screening purposes. The use of the horseradish roots achieves the total elimination of phenolic pollutants in concentrations 1000 times higher than the legal limits in less than 1 h.

Electrochemical oxidative degradation of X-6G dye by boron-doped diamond anodes: Effect of operating parameters

Boron-doped diamond (BDD) is an excellent electrode material. As the anode in an electrochemical degradation tank, BDD has been receiving widespread attention for the treatment of azo dye wastewater. In this study, electrochemical oxidation (EO) was applied to electrolyze reactive brilliant yellow X-6G (X-6G) using BDD as the anode and Pt as the cathode. To balance the degradative effects and power consumption in the electrolysis process, the effects of a series of operating parameters, including current density, supporting electrolyte, initial pH, reaction temperature and initial dye concentration, were systematically studied. The oxidative process was analyzed by color removal rate, and the degree of mineralization was evaluated by TOC. The optimal experimental parameters were finally determined: 100 mA cm^-2, 0.05 M Na₂SO₄ electrolyte, pH 3.03, 60 °C, and an initial X-6G concentration of 100 mg L^-1. As a result, color completely disappeared after 0.75 h of electrolysis, and TOC was removed by 72.8% after 2 h of electrolysis. In conclusion, the EO of a BDD electrode as an anode can be a potent treatment method for X-6G synthetic wastewater.

Photoelectro-Fenton system including electromagnetic induction electrodeless lamp and black carbon poly tetra fluoro ethylene air-diffusion cathode: Degradation kinetics, intermediates and pathway for azo dye

The role of illumination and cathode is important to improve the efficiency of photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) system. In this study, cathodes with black carbon-poly tetra fluoro ethylene (BC-PTFE) for increase the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in PEF. A new PEF system using EIEL and BC-PTFE air-diffusion cathode was established. The electrode performance was tested and the influence factors, degradation kinetics, intermediates, pathway and mechanism of the model compound methyl orange (MO) were studied. The capacities of concentration decays and total organic carbon (TOC) removals were compared between different electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. The experimental conditions were optimized for a current density of 20 mA cm^-2 with 0.5 mM Fe²⁺ and 100 mg L^-1 MO at 20 °C and pH 3.0 in an 8 L reservoir. The higher MO concentration was, the smaller pseudo-first-order kinetic constants of concentration decays and TOC removals were. Intermediate products were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ion-exclusion high performance liquid chromatograph in EIEL-PEF. Combined with frontier electron density, the degradation pathway was deduced as follows: destruction of azo bond, substitution of ^•OH, dehydrogenation and oxidation, opening-ring and mineralization. In EIEL-PEF, the concentration of oxalic acid and oxamic acid reached the maximum value 9.2 and 1.5 mg L^-1 at 60 and 90 min, respectively. The photolysis of N-intermediates produced NH₄⁺-N was released in more proportion than NO₃^--N and oxamic acid-N. The study indicated that PEF system has the potential to remove organic pollutants in aquatic environments.

Degradation of oxamic acid using dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) based on a mixture of RuO2 and IrO2 nanoparticles

Dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) have been widely used to degrade organic compounds because these surfaces promote the electrogeneration of active chlorine species in the bulk of the solution, as well as in the vicinity of the anode when NaCl is used as supporting electrolyte. In this work, the nanoparticles synthesis of IrO₂ and RuO₂ was performed to obtain two types of DSA electrodes named Class I and II to degrade oxamic acid. For Class I and II DSA, the nanoparticles used were synthesized separately and in the same reaction medium, respectively. Electrolysis were carried out in an open cylindrical cell without division at 25 °C, DSAs were used as anodes and a stainless-steel electrode as cathode, both elements have a geometric area of 2.8 cm² immersed in 0.05 mol L^-1 of NaCl or Na₂SO₄ and a current density of 3 mA cm^-2 was applied for 6 h. Active chlorine species generated in the absence of oxamic acid in NaCl were also detected and quantified through ion chromatography. In Na₂SO₄ there was no degradation of the compound, but in NaCl the oxamic acid concentration reaching 85% with Class I DSA. The same tendency is observed in mineralization, in which Class I DSA allowed reaching a CO₂ transformation close to 73%. The difference in the results occurs because with Class I DSA, more hypochlorite is generated than with Class II and therefore there is a larger amount of oxidizing species in the solution that enables the degradation and mineralization of oxamic acid.

Electrochemical treatments of coking wastewater and coal gasification wastewater with Ti/Ti4O7 and Ti/RuO2-IrO2 anodes

Electrochemical treatments of coking wastewater (CW) and coal gasification wastewater (CGW) were conducted with Ti/Ti₄O₇ and Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anodes. The performances of Ti/Ti₄O₇ and Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anodes were investigated by analyzing the effects of five key influencing factors including anodes material, current density, anode-cathode distance, initial pH value, and electrolyte type. The removal efficiencies of total organic carbon (TOC) were analyzed during the processes of CW and CGW electro-oxidation. The removal efficiencies of sixteen polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in CW and CGW by electro-oxidation were also explored to further assess the electrochemical activities of Ti/Ti₄O₇ and Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anodes. The Ti/Ti₄O₇ anode achieved 78.7% COD removal efficiency of CW, 85.8% COD removal efficiency of CGW, 50.3% TOC removal efficiency of CW, and 54.8% TOC removal efficiency of CGW, higher than the Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anode (76.7%, 78.1%, 44.8% and 46.8%). The COD removal efficiencies increased with the applied current density, decreased with the increase of the anode-cathode distance, and slightly decreased with the increase of the initial pH value. Meanwhile, the removal efficiencies of sixteen PAHs by the Ti/Ti₄O₇ anode were mostly higher than those by the Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anode. By comprehensively analyzing the performances of Ti/Ti₄O₇ and Ti/RuO₂-IrO₂ anodes on electrochemical treatments of CW and CGW, this study may supply insights into the application potentials of these anodes to the electrochemical treatments of real wastewater.

A review on the photoelectro-Fenton process as efficient electrochemical advanced oxidation for wastewater remediation. Treatment with UV light, sunlight, and coupling with conventional and other photo-assisted advanced technologies

Wastewaters containing recalcitrant and toxic organic pollutants are scarcely decontaminated in conventional wastewater facilities. Then, there is an urgent challenge the development of powerful oxidation processes to ensure their organic removal in order to preserve the water quality in the environment. This review presents the recent development of an electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) like the photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) process, covering the period 2010-2019, as an effective treatment for wastewater remediation. The high oxidation ability of this photo-assisted Fenton-based EAOP is due to the combination of in situ generated hydroxyl radicals and the photolytic action of UV or sunlight irradiation over the treated wastewater. Firstly, the fundamentals and characteristics of the PEF process are described to understand the role of oxidizing agents. Further, the properties of the homogeneous PEF process with iron catalyst and UV irradiation and the benefit of sunlight in the homogeneous solar PEF one (SPEF) are discussed, supported with examples over their application to the degradation and mineralization of synthetic solutions of industrial chemicals, herbicides, dyes and pharmaceuticals, as well as real wastewaters. Novel heterogeneous PEF processes involving solid iron catalysts or iron-modified cathodes are subsequently detailed. Finally, the oxidation power of hybrid processes including photocatalysis/PEF, solar photocatalysis/SPEF, photoelectrocatalysis/PEF and solar photoelectrocatalysis/SPEF, followed by that of sequential processes like electrocoagulation/PEF and biological oxidation coupled to SPEF, are analyzed.

Simultaneous Electrochemical Generation of Ferrate and Oxygen Radicals to Blue BR Dye Degradation

In this study, electro-oxidation (EOx) and in situ generation of ferrate ions [Fe(VI)] were tested to treat water contaminated with Blue BR dye (BBR) using a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode. Two electrolytic media (0.1 M HClO4 and 0.05 M Na2SO4) were evaluated for the BDD, which simultaneously produced oxygen radicals (•OH) and [Fe(VI)]. The generation of [Fe(VI)] was characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and the effect of different current intensity values (e.g., 7 mA cm−2, 15 mA cm−2, and 30 mA cm−2) was assessed during BBR degradation tests. The discoloration of BBR was followed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry. When the EOx process was used alone, only 78% BBR discoloration was achieved. The best electrochemical discoloration conditions were found using 0.05 M Na2SO4 and 30 mA cm−2. Using these conditions, overall BBR discoloration values up to 98%, 95%, and 87% with 12 mM, 6 mM, and 1 mM of FeSO4, respectively, were achieved. In the case of chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction, the EOx process showed only a 37% COD reduction, whereas combining [Fe(VI)] generation using 12 mM of FeSO4 achieved an up to 61% COD reduction after 90 min. The evolution of reaction byproducts (oxalic acid) was performed using liquid chromatography analysis.

Efficient electro-oxidation of diclofenac persistent organic pollutant in wastewater using carbon film-supported Cu-rGO electrode

Gradually increasing concentrations of diclofenac (DCF), a widely used anti-inflammatory drug, in water bodies is an emerging concern because of the persistent characteristics and harmful environmental impact of the drug molecule. In this study, electro-oxidation using a novel copper (Cu) - reduced graphene oxide (rGO) electrode is indicated to be an efficient technology for treating DFC-laden wastewater. The Cu-rGO dispersed carbon film (∼1 mm thickness) is synthesized by carbonization and H₂-reduction of a phenolic polymeric film in situ dispersed with a Cu salt and GO. The synthesized self-standing carbon film electrode is used for electro-oxidation of aqueous DCF. Analytical microscopic techniques are used to study the physicochemical properties of the material. Cyclic voltammetry analysis shows the prepared electrode generating a high oxidative current response. Approximately 100% DCF degradation is measured within 1 h at 1 V constant biased potential. Dual roles of Cu-rGO are presented as rGO facilitating direct oxidation via enhanced electron mobility at the electrode surface and Cu nanoparticles (NPs) participating in indirect oxidation by generating OH radicals in aqueous phase. The Cu NPs show an over-potential of -0.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl (100 mM KCl) for oxygen evolution, indicating indirect oxidation of DCF. The high non-faradic current density of 4 mA cm^-2 generated at the positive potential (1 V) indicates direct oxidation of DCF. This study clearly indicates electro-oxidation using the Cu-rGO-dispersed carbon film electrode to be an efficient technique for remediation of pharmaceutical pollutants-contaminated wastewater.

Optimization of Boron Doped TiO2 as an Efficient Visible Light-Driven Photocatalyst for Organic Dye Degradation With High Reusability

No visible light activity is the bottle neck for wide application of TiO₂, and Boron doping is one of the effective way to broaden the adsorption edge of TiO₂. In this study, several Boron doped TiO₂ materials were prepared via a facile co-precipitation and calcination process. The B doping amounts were optimized by the degradation of rhodamine B (Rh B) under visible light irradiation, which indicated that when the mass fraction of boron is 6% (denoted as 6B-TiO₂), the boron doped TiO₂ materials exhibited the highest activity. In order to investigate the enhanced mechanism, the difference between B-doped TiO₂ and bare TiO₂ including visible light harvesting abilities, separation efficiencies of photo-generated electron-hole pairs, photo-induced electrons generation abilities, photo-induced charges transferring speed were studied and compared in details. h⁺ and ^·O2- were determined to be the two main responsible active species in the photocatalytic oxidation process. Besides the high degradation efficiency, 6B-TiO₂ also exhibited high reusability in the photocatalysis, which could be reused at least 5 cycles with almost no active reduction. The results indicate that 6B-TiO₂ has high photocatalytic degradation ability toward organic dye of rhodamine B under visible light irradiation, which is a highly potential photocatalyst to cope with organic pollution.

Performance evaluation of photolytic and electrochemical oxidation processes for enhanced degradation of food dyes laden wastewater

Wastewater containing dyes is considered as the top-priority pollutant when discharged into the environment. Herein, we report for the applicability of 254 nm ultraviolet light and electrochemical process using a titanium ruthenium oxide anode for the degradation of Allura red and erythrosine dyes. During the photolytic process, 95% of Allura red dye (50 ppm) was removed after 1 h at pH 12 and 35 °C, whereas 90% color removal of erythrosine dye (50 ppm) was achieved after 6 h of treatment at pH 6.0 and 30 °C. On the other hand, 99.60% of Allura red dye (200 ppm) was removed within 5 min by the electrochemical process applying a current density (5 mA cm^-2) at pH 5.0 and 0.1 mol L^-1 sodium chloride (NaCl) electrolytic medium. Similarly, 99.61% of erythrosine dye (50 ppm) degradation was achieved after 10 min at a current density of 8 mA cm^-2, pH 6.0, and 0.1 mol L^-1 of NaCl electrolyte. The minimum energy consumption value for Allura red and erythrosine dyes (0.196 and 0.941 kWh m^-3, respectively) was calculated at optimum current densities of 5 and 8 mA cm^-2. The results demonstrated that the electrochemical process is more efficient at removing dyes in a shorter time than the photolytic process since it generates powerful oxidants like the chlorine molecule, hypochlorous acid, and hypochlorite on the surface of the anode and initiates a chain reaction to oxidize the dyes molecules.

Selecting and improving activated homogeneous catalytic processes for pollutant removal. Kinetics, mineralization and optimization

The degradation of a model pollutant, tartrazine, very used in food industry and usually present in WWTPs effluents and surface waters, was investigated by nine activated homogeneous catalytic processes, namely, Fe³⁺/H₂O₂, Fe²⁺/H₂O₂, UV/H₂O₂, UV/S₂O₈^2-, UV/Fe²⁺/H₂O₂, UV/Fe³⁺/H₂O₂, UV, VIS/Fe³⁺/H₂O₂, and VIS/Fe³⁺/H₂O₂/C₂O₄^2-. In order to compare the mineralization and oxidation ability of each process, the removal of dye, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) were analyzed, as well as the overall kinetic rate constant. Also, the different oxidation path-ways (direct photolysis and/or oxidation by free radicals) were estimated for each system. After the comparison, the Fenton process, which had the highest mineralization values, was tested in luminous and dark phases using designed experiments, and the influences of all operating variables were studied by RSM.

A multifunctional gelatine-quaternary ammonium copolymer: An efficient material for reducing dye emission in leather tanning process by superior anionic dye adsorption

Leather wastewater is one of the most polluting industrial emissions. The efficiency of wastewater remediation is limited by its complex composition. Herein, a novel strategy for designing modified gelatine with higher degree of quaternization (MG-2) is presented. The higher degree of quaternization allows sufficient adsorption of dyes in the tanning process. It is an in situ, environmentally friendly, and innovative strategy to limit dye emissions and can circumvent the subsequent waste management. Dyes such as Direct Purple N and Acid Black 24 could be adsorbed completely within 5 min by the MG-2 film formed from MG-2 solution. In addition, a remarkable efficiency in removing Acid Red 73, Golden Orange G, and Acid Orange II (>96.1% removal rates) was achieved within 30 min. The adsorption equilibrium data suggested that the adsorption capacity was positively correlated to the concentration of MG-2. When Acid Orange II and MG-2 were used in the industrial re-tanning process, the residual dye concentration in wastewater was only 23.1 mg L^-1, indicating that MG-2 is a promising re-tanning agent for adsorbing dyes in the leather tanning process.

Expanding the application of photoelectro-Fenton treatment to urban wastewater using the Fe(III)-EDDS complex

This work reports the first investigation on the use of EDDS as chelating agent in photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) treatment of water at near-neutral pH. As a case study, the removal of the antidepressant fluoxetine was optimized, using an electrochemical cell composed of an IrO₂-based anode an air-diffusion cathode for in-situ H₂O₂ production. Electrolytic trials at constant current were made in ultrapure water with different electrolytes, as well as in urban wastewater (secondary effluent) at pH 7.2. PEF with Fe(III)-EDDS (1:1) complex as catalyst outperformed electro-Fenton and PEF processes with uncomplexed Fe(II) or Fe(III). This can be explained by: (i) the larger solubilization of iron ions during the trials, favoring the production of ^•OH from Fenton-like reactions between H₂O₂ and Fe(II)-EDDS or Fe(III)-EDDS, and (ii) the occurrence of Fe(II) regeneration from Fe(III)-EDDS photoreduction, which was more efficient than conventional photo-Fenton reaction with uncomplexed Fe(III). The greatest drug concentration decays were achieved at low pH, using only 0.10 mM Fe(III)-EDDS, although complete removal in wastewater was feasible only with 0.20 mM Fe(III)-EDDS due to the greater formation of ^•OH. The effect of the applied current and anode nature was rather insignificant. A progressive destruction of the catalytic complex was unveiled, whereupon the mineralization mainly progressed thanks to the action of ^•OH adsorbed on the anode surface. Despite the incomplete mineralization using BDD as the anode, a remarkable toxicity decrease was determined. Fluoxetine degradation yielded F^- and NO₃^- ions, along with several aromatic intermediates. These included two chloro-organics, as a result of the anodic oxidation of Cl^- to active chlorine. A detailed mechanism for the Fe(III)-EDDS-catalyzed PEF treatment of fluoxetine in urban wastewater is finally proposed.

Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2 Modified with GaI toward Environmental Application

Gallium (Ga) ion-doped TiO₂ (Ga-TiO₂) nanocomposite with small particle size (9-10 nm) and high surface area (104 m²/g) has been easily synthesized via sol-gel method at low temperature by using low-valent GaI as a doping precursor. The structural and morphological characterization of Ga-TiO₂ was carried out with standard analytical and spectroscopic techniques. Ga doping into the TiO₂ matrix inhibited a phase transformation from anatase to rutile (photocatalytically inactive) form, even at a higher temperature of 750 °C. Finally, Ga-TiO₂ nanocomposite showed high photocatalytic activity and exhibited 97% degradation of acid violet 63 dye within 60 min. The dye degradation rate constant was calculated as 1.6 × 10^-1 and 1.4 × 10^-1 min^-1 under UV and white light irradiation, respectively, which is higher, as compared to the previously reported Ga-TiO₂ composites to date.

A 2.5D Electrode System Constructed of Magnetic Sb–SnO2 Particles and a PbO2 Electrode and Its Electrocatalysis Application on Acid Red G Degradation

A novel electrode consisting of a Ti/PbO2 shell and Fe3O4/Sb–SnO2 particles was developed for electrochemical oxidation treatment of wastewater. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), the current limiting method, toxicity experiments, and high-performance liquid chromatography were adopted to characterize its morphology, crystal structure, electrochemical properties, the toxicity of the wastewater, and hydroxyl radicals. Acid Red G (ARG), a typical azo dye, was additionally used to test the oxidation ability of the electrode. Results indicated that the 2.5D electrode could significantly improve the mass transfer coefficient and •OH content of the 2D electrode, thereby enhancing the decolorization, degradation, and mineralization effect of ARG, and reducing the toxicity of the wastewater. The experiments revealed that, at higher current density, lower dye concentration and higher temperature, the electrochemical oxidation of ARG favored. Under the condition of 50 mA/cm2, 25 °C, and 100 ppm, the ARG, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC) removal efficiency reached 100%, 65.89%, and 52.52%, respectively, and the energy consumption and the current efficiency were 1.06 kWh/g COD, 8.29%, and energy consumption for TOC and mineralization current efficiency were 3.81 kWh/g COD, 9.01%. Besides, the Fe3O4/Sb–SnO2 particles after electrolysis for 50 h still had remarkable stability. These results indicated that the ARG solution could be adequately removed on the 2.5D electrode, providing an effective method for wastewater treatment.

Physico-chemical processes

The review scans research articles published in 2018 on physico-chemical processes for water and wastewater treatment. The paper includes eight sections, that is, membrane technology, granular filtration, flotation, adsorption, coagulation/flocculation, capacitive deionization, ion exchange, and oxidation. The membrane technology section further divides into six parts, including microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis/forward osmosis, and membrane distillation. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Totally 266 articles on water and wastewater treatment have been scanned; The review is sectioned into 8 major parts;  Membrane technology has drawn the widest attention from the research community.

Mineralization of cefoperazone in acid medium by the microwave discharge electrodeless lamp irradiated photoelectro-Fenton using a RuO2/Ti or boron-doped diamond anode

The mineralization of 125 mL of 50-300 mg L^-1 cefoperazone (CFPZ) has been comparatively studied by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) like anodic oxidation (AO), electro-Fenton (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) with a RuO₂/Ti or boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode and an activated carbon fiber (ACF) cathode. A microwave discharge electrodeless lamp (MDEL) was used as the UV source in PEF process. CFPZ decays always followed pseudo-first-order kinetics and their constant rates increased in the order: AO < EF < MDEL-PEF, regardless of anode types. Higher mineralization was achieved in all methods using BDD instead of RuO₂/Ti, while the most potent BDD-MDEL-PEF gave 88% mineralization under its optimum conditions of 0.36 A, pH 3.0 and 1.0 mmol L^-1 Fe²⁺. The synergistic mechanisms were explored by quantifying the electrogenerated H₂O₂ and formed ^•OH, in which 2.27 and 2.58 mmol L^-1 H₂O₂ were accumulated in AO-H₂O₂ with RuO₂/Ti or BDD anode, respectively, while 92.0 and 263.5 μmol L^{-1 •}OH were generated in EF with RuO₂/Ti or BDD anode, respectively. The oxidation power of EAOPs with different anodes was also compared by measuring the evolutions of NO₃^- and NH₄⁺ as well as four generated carboxylic acids including oxalic, oxamic, formic and fumaric acids.

Heterogeneous Fenton reaction for elimination of Acid Yellow 36 in both fluidized-bed and stirred-tank reactors: Computational fluid dynamics versus experiments

Heterogeneous Fenton process is a kind of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) that is significant for wastewater treatment. In the first part of this study, acid yellow 36 (AY36) degradation process has occurred in two kinds of reactors: fluidized-bed and stirred-tank reactors. Performances of these two semi-pilot reactors are compared by evaluating the removal ratio of the dye and pH changes during the process. Pyrite has been used as a heterogeneous catalyst. For obtaining the characteristics of pyrite, XRD, SEM, and FT-IR analysis have been carried out. In the second part of this study, a modified computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method has been utilized to solve the momentum and mass balances for heterogeneous Fenton process in both reactors. In AOPs, free radicals are reactive and have a short lifetime, so that turbulence mixing would be a limiting factor for the reactions that radicals are involved. By introducing a new parameter, named turbulence mixing rate, as a reaction rate for reactive species like hydroxyl radicals, the results of removal ratio and pH changes during the process showed a good agreement between the experiments and the CFD simulations, compared with not including the mixing rate in the CFD simulations (conventional kinetic modeling). In addition, the results revealed the high performance of the fluidized-bed reactor for this process in both experiments and CFD simulation.

Photoelectrocatalytic decolorization of azo dyes with nano-composite oxide layers of ZnO nanorods decorated with Ag nanoparticles

Photoelectrocatalysis provides an excellent frame for the application of photocatalytic nanostructured materials on easy recoverable supports. This study reports the two-step synthesis of hierarchically nanostructured ZnO/Ag composite photoelectrodes. Wurtzite ZnO was selectively electronucleated as spheroidal seeds on fluor doped tin oxide substrates and nanodecorated with Ag nanoclusters under electrochemical control. Hierarchically organized nanorods were selectively chemically grown on the plane (002) perpendicular to the substrate from ZnO/Ag seeds. Solutions emulating dye effluents with the usual contents of 0.1 M of NaCl and a model azo dye (Methyl Orange) were decolorized using ZnO/Ag nanorods in different treatments. Photocatalysis attained discrete decolorizations of 8% whereas photoelectrocatalysis completely decolorized solutions after 60 min. The influence of the metal/semiconductor interface (ZnO/Ag) as introduced Schottky barrier is studied demonstrating a four-fold enhancement on decolorization kinetics respect bare ZnO nanorods. The influence of the seed growth control on the final photoelectrocatalytic response is reported to control the hierarchical organization of nanorods. This resulted in different decolorization kinetics as result of the differences on the efficient use of the delivered photons conditioned by the photoelectrode structure.