Biodegradation of λ-cyhalothrin through cell surface display of bacterial carboxylesterase

Surface Display Technologies for Whole-Cell Biocatalysts: Advances in Optimization Strategies, Food Applications, and Future Perspectives

Surface display technology has revolutionized whole-cell biocatalysis by enabling efficient enzyme immobilization on microbial cell surfaces. Compared with traditional enzyme immobilization, this technology has the advantages of high enzyme activity, mild process, simple operation and low cost, which thus has been widely studied and applied in various fields. This review explores the principles, optimization strategies, applications in the food industry, and future prospects. We summarize the membrane and anchor protein structures of common host cells (Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and yeast) and discuss cutting-edge optimization approaches, including host strain genetic engineering, rational design of anchor proteins, innovative linker peptide engineering, and precise regulation of signal peptides and promoters, to maximize surface display efficiency. Additionally, we also explore its diverse applications in food processing and manufacturing, additive synthesis, food safety, and other food-related industries (such as animal feed and PET packaging degradation), demonstrating their potential to address key challenges in the food industry. This work bridges fundamental research and industrial applications, offering valuable insights for advancing agricultural and food chemistry.

Sustainable Pesticide Degradation Using Esterase and Coimmobilized Cells in Agriculture

This study presents an enzymatic approach to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) in agriculture. Using esterase enzymes from the Sphingobium fuliginis strain ATCC 27551 (Opd), we developed a bioremediation system capable of degrading OPs under both buffered and unbuffered conditions. Enzyme activity was evaluated across pH and temperature ranges, with optimal performance observed at pH 8.5-10 and sustained stability for over 28 days. A key innovation was the coimmobilization of Escherichia coli cells expressing Opd and flavin-dependent monooxygenase (HadA) in calcium alginate, enabling the transformation of toxic OPs into less harmful benzoquinones. The system demonstrated high degradation efficiency, achieving 100% degradation of ethyl parathion, along with substantial degradation of methyl parathion (98%), fenitrothion (91%), ethyl chlorpyrifos (83%), and profenofos (62%). Validation in flow cells and column-based setups confirmed the practical applicability of this approach for treating OP-contaminated soil and water. These findings highlight the potential of enzyme-based, cell-immobilized systems for sustainable pesticide remediation. This method offers a practical, eco-friendly solution for reducing pesticide residues in agricultural environments and supports the advancement of greener farming practices.

Escherichia coli Surface Display: Advances and Applications in Biocatalysis

Escherichia coli surface display technology, which facilitates the stable display of target peptides and proteins on the bacterial surface through fusion with anchor proteins, has become a potent and versatile tool in biotechnology and biomedicine. The E. coli surface display strategy presents a unique alternative to classic intracellular and extracellular expression systems, facilitating the anchorage of target peptides and proteins on the cell surface for functional execution. This distinctive attribute also introduces a novel paradigm in the realm of biocatalysis, harnessing cells with surface-displayed enzymes to catalyze the conversion of substrates. This strategy effectively eliminates the requirement for enzyme purification, overcomes the limitations related to substrate transmembrane transport, improves enzyme activity and stability, and greatly reduces the cost of downstream product purification, thus making it widely used in biocatalysis. Here, we review recent advances in various surface display systems and surface display technology for biocatalytic applications. Additionally, we discuss the current limitations of this technology and several promising alternative display methods.

A multifarious bacterial surface display: potential platform for biotechnological applications

Bacterial-cell surface display represents a novel field of protein engineering, which is grounds for presenting recombinant proteins or peptides on the surface of host cells. This technique is primarily used for endowing cellular activity on the host cells and enables several biotechnological applications. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the speciality of bacterial surface display, specifically in gram-positive and gram-negative organisms and then we depict the practical cases to show the importance of bacterial cell surface display in biomedicine and bioremediation domains. We manifest that among other display systems such as phages and ribosomes, the cell surface display using bacterial cells can be used to avoid the loss of combinatorial protein libraries and also open the possibility of isolating target-binding variants using high-throughput selection platforms. Thus, it is becoming a robust tool for functionalizing microbes to serve as a potential implement for various bioengineering purposes.

Microbial degradation mechanisms, degradation pathways, and genetic engineering for pyrethroids: current knowledge and future perspectives

Pyrethroids are synthetic products derived from natural pyrethroids present in flowers and are extensively used as pesticides for agriculture, animal husbandry, and household pest control. However, excessive and prolonged usage of pyrethroid insecticides can result in adverse effects on both non-target and target species. Therefore, effective technologies need to be developed to remove pyrethroid contamination and ensure environmental safety. Microbial remediation of various pesticide contaminants is highly practicable, low cost, and eco-friendly compared to physical and chemical methods. Different microbiota are screened to eliminate or degrade the contaminants. Microbial remediation technology utilizes the natural ability of microbiota to treat contaminated areas. Previous studies have mostly focused on the isolation and screening of microorganisms for pyrethroid biodegradation, as well as on the kinetics and pathways of pyrethroid biodegradation. In order to develop effective bioremediation strategies, further research based on molecular biology and bioengineering is required for a comprehensive exploration of pyrethroid-degrading microorganisms. To date, the microbial degradation of pyrethroid pesticides and the underlying mechanisms have been rarely reviewed. Therefore, this critical review encompasses the latest knowledge on synthetic pyrethroids from structural properties, bio-toxicity, and characterization of microbial degradation strains to degradation characteristics, intrinsic mechanisms, and microbial degradation pathways. The future of microbial remediation depends on combining advanced gene technology with traditional bioremediation methods to sustainably degrade pesticide contaminants. It also summarizes the factors affecting degradation efficiency and concludes with prospects, along with current challenges and limitations.

Unraveling the degradation mechanism of multiple pyrethroid insecticides by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its environmental bioremediation potential

Extensive use of pyrethroid insecticides poses significant risks to both ecological ecosystems and human beings. Herein, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 exhibited exceptional degradation capabilities towards a range of pyrethroid family insecticides including etofenprox, bifenthrin, tetramethrin, D-cypermethrin, allethrin, and permethrin, with a degradation efficiency reaching over 84 % within 36 h (50 mg·L-1). Strain PAO1 demonstrated effective soil bioremediation by removing etofenprox across different concentrations (25-100 mg·kg-1), with a degradation efficiency over 77 % within 15 days. Additionally, 16S rDNA high-throughput sequencing analysis revealed that introduction of strain PAO1 and etofenprox had a notable impact on the soil microbial community. Strain PAO1 displayed a synergistic effect with local degrading bacteria or flora to degrade etofenprox. UPLC-MS/MS analysis identified 2-(4-ethoxyphenyl) propan-2-ol and 3-phenoxybenzoic acid as the major metabolites of etofenprox biodegradation. A new esterase gene (estA) containing conserved motif (GDSL) and catalytic triad (Ser38, Asp310 and His313) was cloned from strain PAO1. Enzyme activity and gene knockout experiments confirmed the pivotal role of estA in pyrethroid biodegradation. The findings from this study shed a new light on elucidating the degradation mechanism of P. aeruginosa PAO1 and present a useful agent for development of effective pyrethroid bioremediation strategies.

Microbial biofilms as a platform for diverse biocatalytic applications

Microbial biofilms have gained significant traction in commercial wastewater treatment due to their inherent resilience, well-organized structure, and potential for collaborative metabolic processes. As our understanding of their physiology deepens, these living catalysts are finding exciting applications beyond wastewater treatment, including the production of bulk and fine chemicals, bioelectricity generation, and enzyme immobilization. While the biological applications of biofilms in different biocatalytic systems have been extensively summarized, the applications of artificially engineered biofilms were rarely discussed. This review aims to bridge this gap by highlighting the untapped potential of engineered microbial biofilms in diverse biocatalytic applications, with a focus on strategies for biofilms engineering. Strategies for engineering biofilm-based systems will be explored, including genetic modification, synthetic biology approaches, and targeted manipulation of biofilm formation processes. Finally, the review will address key challenges and future directions in developing robust biofilm-based biocatalytic platforms for large-scale production of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.

Characteristics of cold-adapted carbonic anhydrase and efficient carbon dioxide capture based on cell surface display technology

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) is currently under investigation because of its potential to capture CO2. A novel N-domain of ice nucleoproteins (INPN)-mediated surface display technique was developed to produce CA with low-temperature capture CO2 based on the mining and characterization of Colwellia sp. CA (CsCA) with cold-adapted enzyme structural features and catalytic properties. CsCA and INPN were effectively integrated into the outer membrane of the cell as fusion proteins. Throughout the display process, the integrity of the membrane of engineered bacteria BL21/INPN-CsCA was maintained. Notably, the study affirmed positive applicability, wherein 94 % activity persisted after 5 d at 15 °C, and 73 % of the activity was regained after 5 cycles of CO2 capture. BL21/INPN-CsCA displayed a high CO2 capture capacity of 52 mg of CaCO3/mg of whole-cell biocatalysts during CO2 mineralization at 25 °C. Therefore, the CsCA functional cell surface display technology could contribute significantly to environmentally friendly CO2 capture.

Microbiology and Biochemistry of Pesticides Biodegradation

Pesticides are chemicals used in agriculture, forestry, and, to some extent, public health. As effective as they can be, due to the limited biodegradability and toxicity of some of them, they can also have negative environmental and health impacts. Pesticide biodegradation is important because it can help mitigate the negative effects of pesticides. Many types of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae, can degrade pesticides; microorganisms are able to bioremediate pesticides using diverse metabolic pathways where enzymatic degradation plays a crucial role in achieving chemical transformation of the pesticides. The growing concern about the environmental and health impacts of pesticides is pushing the industry of these products to develop more sustainable alternatives, such as high biodegradable chemicals. The degradative properties of microorganisms could be fully exploited using the advances in genetic engineering and biotechnology, paving the way for more effective bioremediation strategies, new technologies, and novel applications. The purpose of the current review is to discuss the microorganisms that have demonstrated their capacity to degrade pesticides and those categorized by the World Health Organization as important for the impact they may have on human health. A comprehensive list of microorganisms is presented, and some metabolic pathways and enzymes for pesticide degradation and the genetics behind this process are discussed. Due to the high number of microorganisms known to be capable of degrading pesticides and the low number of metabolic pathways that are fully described for this purpose, more research must be conducted in this field, and more enzymes and genes are yet to be discovered with the possibility of finding more efficient metabolic pathways for pesticide biodegradation.

A novel cold-adapted pyrethroid-degrading esterase from Bacillus subtilis J6 and its application for pyrethroid-residual alleviation in food matrix

Prolonged and widespread use of pyrethroid pesticides a significant concern for human health. The initial step in pyrethroid bioremediation involves the hydrolysis of ester-bond. In the present study, the esterase genes est10 and est13, derived from Bacillus subtilis, were successfully cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. Recombinant Est10 and Est13 were classified within esterase families VII and XIII, respectively, both of which exhibited conserved G-X-G-X-G motifs. These enzymes demonstrated the capability to degrade pyrethroids, with Est13 exhibiting superior efficiency, and thus was selected for further investigation. The degradation products of β-cypermethrin by Est13 were identified as 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde, and 3-(2,2-Dichloroethenyl)- 2,2-dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxylate, with key catalytic triads comprising Ser93, Asp192, and His222. Notably, Est13 exhibited the highest β-cypermethrin-hydrolytic activity at 25 °C and a pH of 7.0, showing robust stability in low and medium temperature environment and a broad range of pH levels. Furthermore, Est13 displayed notable resistance to organic solvents and NaCl, coupled with wide substrate specificity. Moreover, Est13 exhibited substantial efficiency in removing β-cypermethrin residues from various food items such as milk, meat, vegetables, and fruits. These findings underscore the potential of Est13 for application in the bioremediation of pyrethroid-contaminated environments and reduction of pyrethroid residues in food products.

A novel thermostable and salt-tolerant carboxylesterase involved in the initial aerobic degradation pathway for pyrethroids in Glycomyces salinus

The long-term and excessive use of pyrethroid pesticides poses substantial health risks and ecosystem concerns. Several bacteria and fungi have been reported that could degrade pyrethroids. The ester-bond hydrolysis using hydrolases is the initial regulatory metabolic reaction of pyrethroids. However, the thoroughly biochemical characterization of hydrolases involved in this process is limited. Here, a novel carboxylesterase, designated as EstGS1 that could hydrolyze pyrethroid pesticides was characterized. EstGS1 showed low sequence identity (<27.03%) compared to other reported pyrethroid hydrolases and belonged to the hydroxynitrile lyase family that preferred short short-chain acyl esters (C2 to C8). EstGS1 displayed the maximal activity of 213.38 U/mg at 60 °C and pH 8.5 using pNPC2 as substrate, with K_m and V_max were 2.21 ± 0.72 mM and 212.90 ± 41.78 µM/min, respectively. EstGS1 is a halotolerant esterase and remains stable in 5.1 M NaCl. Based on molecular docking and mutational analysis, the catalytic triad of S⁷⁴-D¹⁸¹-H²¹² and three other substrate-binding residues I¹⁰⁸, S¹⁵⁹, and G⁷⁵ are critical for the enzymatic activity of EstGS1. Additionally, 61 and 40 mg/L of deltamethrin and λ-cyhalothrin were hydrolyzed by 20 U of EstGS1 in 4 h. This work presents the first report on a pyrethroid pesticide hydrolase characterized from a halophilic actinobacteria.

Highly efficient low-temperature biodegradation of polyethylene microplastics by using cold-active laccase cell-surface display system

To eliminate efficiency restriction of polyethylene microplastics low-temperature biodegradation, a novel InaKN-mediated Escherichia coli surface display platform for cold-active degrading laccase PsLAC production was developed. Display efficiency of 88.0% for engineering bacteria BL21/pET-InaKN-PsLAC was verified via subcellular extraction and protease accessibility, exhibiting an activity load of 29.6 U/mg. Cell growth and membrane integrity revealed BL21/pET-InaKN-PsLAC maintained stable growth and intact membrane structure during the display process. The favorable applicability was confirmed, with 50.0% activity remaining in 4 days at 15 °C, and 39.0% activity recovery retention after 15 batches of activity substrate oxidation reactions. Moreover, BL21/pET-InaKN-PsLAC possessed high polyethylene low-temperature depolymerizing capacity. Bioremediation experiments proved that the degradation rate was 48.0% within 48 h at 15 °C, and reached 66.0% after 144 h. Collectively, cold-active PsLAC functional surface display technology and its significant contributions to polyethylene microplastics low-temperature degradation constitute an effective improvement strategy for biomanufacturing and microplastics cold remediation.

Degradation strategies of pesticide residue: From chemicals to synthetic biology

The past 50 years have witnessed a massive expansion in the demand and application of pesticides. However, pesticides are difficult to be completely degraded without intervention hence the pesticide residue could pose a persistent threat to non-target organisms in many aspects. To aim at the problem of the abuse of pesticide products and excessive pesticide residues in the environment, chemical and biological degradation methods are widely developed but are scaled and insufficient to solve such a pollution. In recent years, bio-degradative tools instructed by synthetic biological principles have been further studied and have paved a way for pesticide degradation. Combining the customized design strategy and standardized assembly mode, the engineering bacteria for multi-dimensional degradation has become an effective tool for pesticide residue degradation. This review introduces the mechanisms and hazards of different pesticides, summarizes the methods applied in the degradation of pesticide residues, and discusses the advantages, applications, and prospects of synthetic biology in degrading pesticide residues.

Novel mechanism and degradation kinetics of allethrin using Bacillus megaterium strain HLJ7 in contaminated soil/water environments

As a common pyrethroid insecticide, allethrin is widely used for various purposes in agriculture and home applications. At present, allethrin residues have been frequently detected worldwide, yet little is known about the kinetics and degradation mechanisms of this insecticide. In this study, a highly efficient allethrin-degrading bacterium, Bacillus megaterium strain HLJ7, was obtained through enrichment culture technology. Strain HLJ7 can remove 96.5% of 50 mg L^-1 allethrin in minimal medium within 11 days. The first-order kinetic analysis of degradation demonstrated that the half-life of allethrin degradation by strain HLJ7 was 3.56 days, which was significantly shorter than the 55.89 days of the control. The Box-Behnken design of the response surface method optimized the degradation conditions for strain HLJ7: temperature 32.18 °C, pH value 7.52, and inoculation amount 1.31 × 10⁷ CFU mL^-1. Using Andrews equation, the optimal concentration of strain HLJ7 to metabolize allethrin was determined to be 21.15 mg L^-1, and the maximum specific degradation rate (q_max), half-rate constant (K_s) and inhibition coefficient (K_i) were calculated to be 1.80 d^-1, 1.85 mg L^-1 and 68.13 mg L^-1, respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identified five intermediate metabolites, suggesting that allethrin could be degraded firstly by cleavage of its carboxylester bond, followed by degradation of the five-carbon ring and subsequent metabolism. The results of soil remediation experiments showed that strain HLJ7 has excellent bioremediation potential in the soils. After 15 days of treatment, about 70.8% of the initial allethrin (50 mg kg^-1) was removed and converted into nontoxic intermediate metabolites, and its half-life was significantly reduced in the soils. Taken together, these findings shed light on the degradation mechanisms of allethrin and also highlight the promising potentials of B. megaterium HLJ7 in bioremediation of allethrin-comtaminated environment.

Microbial elimination of pyrethroids: specific strains and involved enzymes

Pyrethroids, which are synthetic organic insecticides, are widely used in agriculture and households to resist pests and control disease transmission. However, pyrethroids have inevitably caused environmental pollution, leading to concerns for food safety and human health. Bioremediation has emerged as one of the most promising methods to eliminate pyrethroids compounds. Pyrethroid-degrading microorganisms and the relevant enzymes have shown an efficient ability in degrading pyrethroids by hydrolyzing the ester linkage. In this review, a wide variety of pyrethroid-degrading strains were presented and classified from different sources, such as wastewater, soils, and oceans. In addition, the recombinant expression, enzyme identification, and molecular modification of these microbial pyrethroid-degrading enzymes were also compared and discussed in detail. Moreover, the potential applications of pyrethroid-degrading enzymes, including immobilization and biodegradation towards a series of pyrethroids, were also presented. All of the positive results obtained from this review could be a good guideline for the other research in this field. KEY POINTS: • Distribution of pyrethroid-degrading strains in different sources was summarized. • Enzymatic properties including pH, temperature, and substrate specificity were compared. • Promising molecular modification and immobilization of hydrolases were present.

Indigenous bacterial consortium-mediated cypermethrin degradation in the presence of organic amendments and Zea mays plants

Cypermethrin is a toxic pyrethroid insecticide that is widely used in agricultural and household activities. One of the most serious issues is its persistence in the environment, because it is easily transported to the soil and aquatic ecosystem. The biodegradation of cypermethrin is emerging as an environmentally friendly method for large-scale treatment. This study examined the application of a novel binary bacterial combination-based (Bacillus thuringiensis strain SG4 and Bacillus sp. strain SG2) approach used for the enhanced degradation of cypermethrin from the environment. The bacterial strains degraded cypermethrin (80% and 85%) in the presence of external nitrogen sources (KNO₃ and NaNO₃). Furthermore, when immobilized in agar disc beads, the co-culture degraded cypermethrin (91.3%) with a half-life (t_1/2) of 4.3 days compared to 4.9 days using sodium alginate beads. Cereal straw, farmyard manure, press mud compost, fresh cow dung, and gypsum were used as organic amendments in the soil to stimulate cypermethrin degradation. Cereal straw promoted the fastest cypermethrin degradation among the different organic amendments tested, with a t_1/2 of 4.4 days. The impact of cypermethrin-degrading bacterial consortium on cypermethrin rhizoremediation was also investigated. Bacterial inoculums exhibited beneficial effects on plant biomass. Moreover, Zea mays and the bacterial partnership substantially enhanced cypermethrin degradation in soil. Six intermediate metabolites were detected during the degradation of cypermethrin, indicating that cypermethrin could be degraded first by the hydrolysis of its carboxyl ester bond, followed by the cleavage of the diaryl linkage and subsequent metabolism. Our findings highlight the promising potential and advantages of the bacterial consortium for the bioremediation of a cypermethrin-contaminated environment.

Establishment of a Novel Cell Surface Display Platform Based on Natural "Chitosan Beads" of Yeast Spores

Cell surface display technology, which expresses and anchors proteins on the surface of microbial cells, has broad application prospects in many fields, such as protein library screening, biocatalysis, and biosensor development. However, traditional cell surface display systems have disadvantages: the molecular weight of phage display proteins cannot be too large; bacterial display lacks the post-translational modification process for eukaryotic proteins; yeast display is prone to excessive protein glycosylation and misfolding of multisubunit proteins; and the compatibility of Bacillus subtilis spore display needs to be further improved. Therefore, it is extremely valuable to develop an efficient surface display platform with strong universality and stress resistance properties. Although yeast surface display systems have been extensively investigated, the establishment of a surface display platform using yeast spores has rarely been reported. In this study, a novel cell surface display platform based on natural "chitosan beads" of yeast spores was developed. The target protein in fusion with the chitosan affinity protein (CAP) exhibited strong binding capability with "chitosan beads" of yeast spores in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, this protein display system showed highly preferable enzymatic properties and stability. As an example, the displayed LXYL-P1-2-CAP demonstrated high thermostability and reusability (60% of the initial activity after seven cycles of reuse), high storage stability (75% of original activity after 8 weeks), and excellent tolerance to a concentration up to 75% (v/v) organic reagents. To prove the practicability of this surface display system, the semisynthesis of paclitaxel intermediate was demonstrated and its highest conversion rate was 92% using 0.25 mM substrate. This study provides a novel and useful platform for the surface display of proteins, especially for multimeric macromolecular proteins of eukaryotic origin.

Display of a novel carboxylesterase CarCby on Escherichia coli cell surface for carbaryl pesticide bioremediation

Background

Carbamate pesticides have been widely used in agricultural and forestry pest control. The large-scale use of carbamates has caused severe toxicity in various systems because of their toxic environmental residues. Carbaryl is a representative carbamate pesticide and hydrolase/carboxylesterase is the initial and critical enzyme for its degradation. Whole-cell biocatalysts have become a powerful tool for environmental bioremediation. Here, a whole cell biocatalyst was constructed by displaying a novel carboxylesterase/hydrolase on the surface of Escherichia coli cells for carbaryl bioremediation.

Results

The carCby gene, encoding a protein with carbaryl hydrolysis activity was cloned and characterized. Subsequently, CarCby was displayed on the outer membrane of E. coli BL21(DE3) cells using the N-terminus of ice nucleation protein as an anchor. The surface localization of CarCby was confirmed by SDS–PAGE and fluorescence microscopy. The optimal temperature and pH of the engineered E. coli cells were 30 °C and 7.5, respectively, using pNPC4 as a substrate. The whole cell biocatalyst exhibited better stability and maintained approximately 8-fold higher specific enzymatic activity than purified CarCby when incubated at 30 °C for 120 h. In addition, ~ 100% and 50% of the original activity was retained when incubated with the whole cell biocatalyst at 4 ℃ and 30 °C for 35 days, respectively. However, the purified CarCby lost almost 100% of its activity when incubated at 30 °C for 134 h or 37 °C for 96 h, respectively. Finally, approximately 30 mg/L of carbaryl was hydrolyzed by 200 U of the engineered E. coli cells in 12 h.

Conclusions

Here, a carbaryl hydrolase-containing surface-displayed system was first constructed, and the whole cell biocatalyst displayed better stability and maintained its catalytic activity. This surface-displayed strategy provides a new solution for the cost-efficient bioremediation of carbaryl and could also have the potential to be used to treat other carbamates in environmental bioremediation.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01821-5.

Whole-Cell Display of Phosphotransferase in Escherichia coli for High-Efficiency Extracellular ATP Production

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), as a universal energy currency, takes a central role in many biochemical reactions with potential for the synthesis of numerous high-value products. However, the high cost of ATP limits industrial ATP-dependent enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Here, we investigated the effect of cell-surface display of phosphotransferase on ATP regeneration in recombinant Escherichia coli. By N-terminal fusion of the super-folder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP), we successfully displayed the phosphotransferase of Pseudomonas brassicacearum (PAP-Pb) on the surface of E. coli cells. The catalytic activity of sfGFP-PAP-Pb intact cells was 2.12 and 1.47 times higher than that of PAP-Pb intact cells, when the substrate was AMP and ADP, respectively. The conversion of ATP from AMP or ADP were up to 97.5% and 80.1% respectively when catalyzed by the surface-displayed enzyme at 37 °C for only 20 min. The whole-cell catalyst was very stable, and the enzyme activity of the whole cell was maintained above 40% after 40 rounds of recovery. Under this condition, 49.01 mg/mL (96.66 mM) ATP was accumulated for multi-rounds reaction. This ATP regeneration system has the characteristics of low cost, long lifetime, flexible compatibility, and great robustness.