Occurrence and removal rate of typical pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in an urban wastewater treatment plant in Beijing, China

High-Throughput Monitoring of 323 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and Pesticides in Surface Water for Environmental Risk Assessment

The ubiquity of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and pesticides in aquatic environments has raised significant ecological concerns due to their potential to disrupt aquatic ecosystems. This study presents a high-throughput ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method without sample enrichment to monitor 323 PPCPs and pesticides in the surface water of the Jingmi Water Diversion Canal in Beijing, China. One hundred and three PPCPs and pesticides were detected, with the highest detection frequency observed for antibiotics, which constituted 25.2% of the total detections. Notably, the average concentrations of detected PPCPs and pesticides were significantly higher in the winter (69.0 ng/L) than in the summer (42.1 ng/L). Spatial characterization indicated higher concentrations of PPCPs and pesticides in urban areas compared with suburban areas, with carbendazim, caffeine, atrazine, and diazepam being the most frequently detected compounds. The ecological risk assessment based on risk quotient values identified moderate to high risks for aquatic organisms, particularly in urban areas and during winter. These findings highlight the necessity for improved wastewater treatment technologies and continuous environmental monitoring to protect aquatic ecosystems from the adverse effects of PPCPs and pesticides.

Spatial distribution and seasonal variations of typical UV filter and insect repellent personal care products in a coastal resort area in Qingdao, China

The occurrence, concentration, spatial distribution, seasonal variations, and ecotoxicological risks of six typical UV filter and insect repellent personal care products (PCPs) were evaluated in multiple environmental matrices (river/estuary/wetland water, seawater, beach sands, local WWTP water and sludges) in a coastal resort area in Qingdao, China. Target PCPs were widely detected, with significantly higher levels in the summer across all matrices. Insect repellents (max=841.49 ng/L for diethyltoluamide [DEET]) were typically found in higher concentrations in natural waters than UV filters (max=356.24 ng/L for octocrylene [OC]), with oxybenzone (BP3) present in trace levels (generally below 1 ng/L). Seawater exhibited low-level PCPs (mostly below 100 ng/L in total), while high concentrations found in several estuaries suggest potential direct input of relevant PCPs. All target PCPs were present in beach sands (below 50 ng/g dry weight for individual PCP). Natural/constructed wetlands showed minimal removal effects. Insect repellents, particularly DEET (13.97-919.69 ng/L), were abundant in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents, while OC levels were high in sludges (max=3842.44 ng/g dry weight). Secondary biological treatment substantially removed PCPs despite increases in the primary aerated grit tank. Significant correlations (p<0.05) were found between various matrices, such as sands and adjacent seawater for OC, and WWTP water and sludge for 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC). Ecotoxicological risk assessments revealed no-to-medium risks at most sites for individual PCPs, with higher risks in the summer; during this period, river/estuary waters demonstrated higher total risks than seawater, with beach-adjacent seawater showing elevated risks, and several estuaries showed greater risks than their upper reaches. The findings underscore the necessity for research on UV filter and insect repellent PCPs and their associated risks in coastal resort areas.

Fate and transformation of psychotropic drugs in urban wastewater systems and receiving rivers via the integration of targeted and suspect screening analysis

Psychotropic drugs rank among the most prescribed pharmaceuticals in the world. The ubiquitous occurrence of psychotropic drugs in the environment evoked rising concerns due to their various toxic effect on non-target organisms at low concentrations. However, the removal, transformation, and discharging of these drugs throughout wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have rarely been reported. Based on the targeted analysis and suspected screening, this study investigated the distribution of psychotropic drugs and their transformation products (TPs) within the entire treatment processes in WWTPs and their receiving rivers. The results indicated that 13 out of 47 psychotropic drugs are widely observed across wastewater, sludge, receiving river water, and sediment, respectively. The aqueous removal efficiencies of most psychotropic drugs exhibited their significant recalcitrance in wastewater treatment processes. For instance, venlafaxine (VEL) was slightly removed by 2.64 % and 10.8 % in these two WWTPs. The concentrations of oxazepam (OZP) and lamotrigine (LMT) dramatically increased after the overall treatment processes due to their metabolic conversion and regeneration processes, respectively. Given the recalcitrance of psychotropic drugs, the identified TPs generated within WWTPs were not abundant, but a wider variety of TPs were identified from human metabolites. A total of 25 TPs were identified via the suspect screening analysis, of which nine were newly identified. In receiving rivers, the risk quotient (RQ) presented OZP, sertraline (SER), and VEL posed high potential risks; the integration of the toxicological priority index (ToxPi) and the toxicity-weighted concentration (TWC) suggested TP-CIT-322 and TP-OCX-195 as the high-priority contaminants. Given the recalcitrance and environmental risks of psychotropic drugs and their TPs in WWTPs and environments, it is crucial for the further exploration of their effective treatment technologies and emission control strategies .

Unveiling the mechanism and driving factors of pharmaceutical and personal care product (PPCP) removal in wastewater treatment plants

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are primary point sources of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) entering the environment; however, few studies have systematically elucidated the PPCP removal mechanism in WWTPs. In this study, we conducted two composite sampling campaigns, collecting water and sludge samples from each treatment stage of four secondary or tertiary WWTPs with various processes. Our goal was to identify the mechanisms and driving factors behind the removal of 30 common PPCPs. The average removal efficiency of all PPCPs was 62.57 %, with significant variations (-308.03 %-91.03 %) among individual PPCPs. The contribution of sludge adsorption, biodegradation and chemical degradation to the removal of 30 PPCPs was quantified. The average biodegradation efficiency of sulfonamides was 44.90 %, but reconversion of chelate products to the sulfonamides after chemical treatment (UV) was the main reason for their low removal efficiency (about 30 %). Base dissociation constant (pKb) and logKow were used to evaluate the contribution of charge interactions and hydrophobic partitioning to the adsorption capacity of PPCPs for the first time. For PPCPs that could ionize into cations, higher pKb increased adsorption capacity, whereas for other PPCPs logKd (distribution coefficient) and logKow showed a significant positive correlation. The biodegradation of sulfonamides was positively correlated with their solubility. The presence of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups promoted microbial degradation of non-antibiotic compounds. This study reveals the universal mechanisms and driving factors behind PPCP removal in WWTPs, providing insights to guide the targeted optimization of treatment processes for PPCP removal.

Decentralized graywater treatment by a combination of sequencing batch reactor and advanced oxidation processes for reuse in Vietnam

The availability of sufficient clean water has become an increasing problem even in regions with generally humid climates such as Vietnam due to rising water consumption, particularly in densely populated urban areas. The associated problems, such as an increasing scarcity of groundwater, pose major challenges for water management. Appropriate treatment and reuse of graywater, which accounts for a high proportion of total wastewater in households, can contribute significantly to solving this problem. In the present study, a combination of a biologically active sequencing batch reactor (SBR) and subsequent treatment by advanced oxidation processes (AOP) for decentralized graywater treatment is described as a promising option for water reuse in Vietnam. Treatment of synthetic graywater in a model reactor has shown that SBR is a suitable approach for efficient removal of bioavailable organic matter (BOD5 removal >95%), but that the resulting effluent does not meet the required quality criteria for reuse in terms of microbiological contamination, color and micropollutant levels. However, the subsequent AOP remedies these deficiencies. Thus, the number of coliforms could be reduced from 1320 to <1 MPN/100 mL, turbidity to <2 NTU and color by 75% to 4-6 Pt/Co-units. With the exception of terbutryn, the graywater-relevant micropollutants considered could be removed to such an extent by the subsequent UV/H2O2 treatment step within 60 min of treatment time that the requirements of the corresponding Environmental Quality Standard (EQS) values are met. Therefore, a combination of both methods enables efficient graywater treatment for a variety of reuse purposes. PRACTITIONER POINTS: For laboratory investigations, a synthetically produced greywater was produced on the basis of various literature references, which is representative of the Southeast Asia region under consideration. Aerobic biological treatment resulted in a significant improvement in water quality in terms of color and typical general wastewater parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), BOD5, and ammonium. In contrast, the biological stage only insufficiently removed turbidity, coliforms, total P, total N, and a number of selected organic trace substances typical of greywater. Only subsequent treatment using a AOP process (VUV irradiation and peroxide) reduced all the parameters and studied pollutants to such an extent that the water can be reused, for example, for irrigation purposes or for groundwater recharge.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Canadian municipal wastewater and biosolids: occurrence, fate, and time trends 2010-2013 to 2022

The concentrations of 135 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were determined in raw influent, final effluent, and treated biosolids at Canadian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to evaluate the fate of PPCPs through liquid and solids trains of typical treatment types used in Canada and to assess changes in PPCP concentrations in wastewater matrices between 2010-2013 and 2022. PPCPs dominant in influent and effluent included the antidiabetic metformin, analgesics/anti-inflammatories (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, 2-hydroxy-ibuprofen), caffeine and its metabolite (1,7 - dimethylxanthine), theophylline (a bronchodilator and metabolite of caffeine), an insect repellent (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, DEET), and iopamidol (a contrast media for X-rays). PPCPs dominant in biosolids differed from those in influent/effluent and included antibiotics (fluoroquinolones and doxycycline), antidepressants (sertraline, citalopram, and amitriptyline), a preservative and antimicrobial agent (triclosan), an antihistamine (diphenhydramine), and an antifungal (clotrimazole). These elevated concentrations in influent/effluent and biosolids reflected their use in Canadian communities. PPCPs dominant in influent/effluent had relatively low hydrophobicity whereas those in biosolids tended to be more hydrophobic, or electrostatic forces governed their sorption. Higher removal of PPCPs was generally observed at WWTPs that used biological treatment compared to primary physical/chemical treatment. PPCP concentration changes in wastewater matrices between 2010-2013 and 2022 were influenced by risk management measures, warnings, the development of new pharmaceuticals, the COVID-19 pandemic, and other factors. These time trends reflected the limited information available on PPCP use in Canada. Continued periodic monitoring of PPCPs is recommended to fill data gaps on community use and release to the environment.

Amended biochar in constructed wetlands: Roles, challenges, and future directions removing pharmaceuticals and personal care products

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater pose significant threats to both human health and aquatic ecosystems. Wastewater discharge from various sources is the primary cause of these contaminants, and proper treatment is essential for protecting the environment. Traditional treatment technologies are often too expensive and ineffective in removing PPCPs. Constructed wetlands (CWs) offer a sustainable, cost-efficient alternative for wastewater treatment, though their capability to eliminate PPCPs can vary based on multiple aspects. Recent studies highlight biochar-a carbon-rich material resultant from biomass pyrolysis-as a promising amendment to improve CW performance. However, there is a deficiency of proper literature reviews on using biochar in CWs specifically for PPCP removal. This review focuses on biochar's role in CWs and its effectiveness in removing PPCPs and enhancing microbial activity and nutrient cycling. A bibliometric analysis using Vosviewer software was used to assess the current research trends in the biochar-amended CWs to attenuate PPCPs. While biochar shows potential in eliminating PPCPs, challenges, such as optimizing its application and addressing long-term operational concerns for treating emerging pollutants like PPCPs. Future research should enhance biochar production and low-cost techniques for diverse groups of PPCPs and perform field trials to validate laboratory results under actual conditions exploring microbial-biochar and plant-biochar interactions. Addressing these challenges is crucial to advancing biochar-amended CWs and enhancing wastewater treatment on a global scale.

Enhanced removal of PPCPs and antibiotic resistance genes in saline wastewater using a bioelectrochemical-constructed wetland system

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are insufficiently degraded in saline wastewater treatment processes and are found at high concentrations and detection frequencies in aquatic environments. In this study, the wetland plant Thalia dealbata was selected using a screening plant experiment to ensure good salt tolerance and high efficiency in removing PPCPs. An electric integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland (E-VFCW) was developed to improve the removal of PPCPs and reduce the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). The removal efficiency of ofloxacin, enrofloxacin, and diclofenac in the system with anaerobic cathodic and aerobic anodic chambers is higher than that of the control system (41.84 ± 2.88%, 47.29 ± 3.01%, 53.29 ± 2.54%) by approximately 20.31%, 16.04%, and 35.25%. The removal efficiency of ibuprofen in the system with the aerobic anodic and anaerobic cathodic chamber was 28.51% higher than that of the control system (72.41 ± 3.06%) and promotes the reduction of ARGs. Electrical stimulation can increase the activity of plant enzymes, increasing their adaptability to stress caused by PPCPs, and PPCPs are transferred to plants. Species related to PPCPs biodegradation (Geobacter, Lactococcus, Hydrogenophaga, and Nitrospira) were enriched in the anodic and cathodic chambers of the system. This study provides an essential reference for the removal of PPCPs in saline-constructed wetlands.

The fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in sewer sediments:Adsorption triggering resistance gene proliferation

In recent years, large quantities of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been discharged into sewers, while the mechanisms of PPCPs enrichment in sewer sediments have rarely been revealed. In this study, three PPCPs (tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and triclocarban) were added consecutively over a 90-day experimental period to reveal the mechanisms of PPCPs enrichment and the transmission of resistance genes in sewer sediments. The results showed that tetracycline (TC) and triclocarban (TCC) have higher adsorption concentration in sediments compared to sulfamethoxazole (SMX). The absolute abundance of Tets and suls genes increased in sediments under PPCPs pressure. The increase in secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and the loosening of the structure exposed a large number of hydrophobic functional groups, which promoted the adsorption of PPCPs. The absolute abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), EPS and the content of PPCPs in sediments exhibited significant correlations. The enrichment of PPCPs in sediments was attributed to the accumulation of EPS, which led to the proliferation of ARGs. These findings contributed to further understanding of the fate of PPCPs in sewer sediments and opened a new perspective for consideration of controlling the proliferation of resistance genes.

Development of a High-Throughput Analytical Method for Antimicrobials in Wastewater Using an Automated Pipetting and Solid-Phase Extraction System

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged and spread globally. Recent studies have also reported the presence of antimicrobials in a wide variety of aquatic environments. Conducting a nationwide monitoring survey of AMR in the environment to elucidate its status and to assess its impact on ecosystems and human health is of social importance. In this study, we developed a novel high-throughput analysis (HTA) system based on a 96-well plate solid-phase extraction (SPE), using automated pipetting and an SPE pre-treatment system. The effectiveness of the system as an HTA for antimicrobials in environmental water was verified by comparing it with a conventional manual analytical system in a domestic hospital over a period of two years and four months. The results of the manual analysis and HTA using a combination of automated pipetting and SPE systems were generally consistent, and no statistically significant difference was observed (p > 0.05) between the two systems. The agreement ratios between the measured concentrations based on the conventional and HTA methods were positively correlated with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.99. These results indicate that HTA, which combines automated pipetting and an SPE pre-treatment system for rapid, high-volume analysis, can be used as an effective approach for understanding the environmental contamination of antimicrobials at multiple sites. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to present the accuracy and agreement between concentrations based on a manual analysis and those measured using HTA in hospital wastewater. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of antimicrobials in aquatic environments and assess the ecological and human health risks associated with antimicrobials and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria to maintain the safety of aquatic environments.

Enhanced properties of a positive-charged nanofiltration membrane containing quaternarized chitosan through second interfacial polymerization for the removal of salts and pharmaceuticals

Nanofiltration (NF) membrane technology has been widely used in the removal of salts and trace organic pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), due to its superiority. A positive-charged composite NF membrane with an active skin layer was prepared by polyethyleneimine (PEI), trimethyl benzene chloride, and quaternate chitosan (HTCC) through second interfacial polymerization on the polyethersulfone ultrafiltration membrane. The physicochemical properties of the nanocomposite membrane were investigated using surface morphology, hydrophilicity, surface charge, and molecular weight cut-off (MWCO). The influence of the concentration and reaction time of PEI and HTCC was documented. The optimized membrane had a MWCO of about 481 Da and possessed a pure water permeability of 25.37 L·m-2·h-1·MPa-1. The results also exhibited salt rejection ability as MgCl2 > CaCl2 > MgSO4 > Na2SO4 > NaCl > KCl, showing a positive charge on the fabricated membrane. In addition, the membrane had higher rejection to atenolol, carbamazepine, amlodipine, and ibuprofen at 89.46, 86.02, 90.12, and 77.21%, respectively. Moreover, the anti-fouling performance and stability of the NF membrane were also improved.

Inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in hospital wastewater by ozone-based advanced water treatment processes

The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) continue on a global scale. The impacts of wastewater on the environment and human health have been identified, and understanding the environmental impacts of hospital wastewater and exploring appropriate forms of treatment are major societal challenges. In the present research, we evaluated the efficacy of ozone (O3)-based advanced wastewater treatment systems (O3, O3/H2O2, O3/UV, and O3/UV/H2O2) for the treatment of antimicrobials, antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (AMRB), and antimicrobial resistance genes (AMRGs) in wastewater from medical facilities. Our results indicated that the O3-based advanced wastewater treatment inactivated multiple antimicrobials (>99.9%) and AMRB after 10-30 min of treatment. Additionally, AMRGs were effectively removed (1.4-6.6 log10) during hospital wastewater treatment. The inactivation and/or removal performances of these pollutants through the O3/UV and O3/UV/H2O2 treatments were significantly (P < 0.05) better than those in the O3 and O3/H2O2 treatments. Altered taxonomic diversity of microorganisms based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing following the O3-based treatment showed that advanced wastewater treatments not only removed viable bacteria but also removed genes constituting microorganisms in the wastewater. Consequently, the objective of this study was to apply advanced wastewater treatments to treat wastewater, mitigate environmental pollution, and alleviate potential threats to environmental and human health associated with AMR. Our findings will contribute to enhancing the effectiveness of advanced wastewater treatment systems through on-site application, not only in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) but also in medical facilities. Moreover, our results will help reduce the discharge of AMRB and AMRGs into rivers and maintain the safety of aquatic environments.

Occurrences of typical PPCPs during wastewater treatment and the composting of sewage sludge with micron-sized and nano-sized Fe3O4

New pollutants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), accumulate in sewage sludge (SS) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), posing risks to the environment and to human health. In the present study, the fates of typical PPCPs, carbamazepine (CBZ), triclosan (TCS), ibuprofen (IBU) and galaxolide (HHCB), were examined during WW treatment. Additionally, SS collected from a WWTP was used for aerobic composting to investigate the influences of micron-sized Fe3O4 (M-Fe) and nano-sized Fe3O4 (N-Fe) on the degradation of these PPCPs and the succession of microbial communities during the composting process. The results showed that the mean concentrations of CBZ, TCS, IBU and HHCB in the influent of the WWTP were 926.5, 174.4, 8869, and 967.3 ng/g, respectively, and in the effluent were 107.6, 47.0, 283.4, and 88.4 ng/g, respectively. The removal rate averaged ∼80%, while the enrichment rates of the PPCPs in SS ranged from 37.2% to 60.5%. M-Fe and N-Fe reduced NH3 emissions by 32.9% and 54.1% and N2O emissions by 26.2% and 50.8%, respectively. Moreover, the addition of M-Fe and N-Fe effectively increased PPCP degradation rates 1.12-1.66-fold. During the whole process, the additions of M-Fe and N-Fe significantly shifted microbial community structure, and the abundances of Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Actinobacteria were increased during the thermophilic stage, marking them as key PPCP-degrading phyla. Taken together, our results indicated that the addition of M-Fe and N-Fe is an effective method for improving the quality of end compost and accelerating the degradation of PPCPs.