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Tang H, Wang Y, Si S, Li H, Chen DDY. Quantification of perfluorinated compounds in atmospheric particulate shows potential connection with environmental event. J Environ Sci (China) 2024; 136:237-247. [PMID: 37923434 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
A method of quantification of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) from atmospheric particulate matter (APM) is described. A single step pretreatment method, selective pressurized liquid extraction (SPLE), was developed to reduce the high matrix background and avoid contamination from commonly used multiple sample pretreatment steps. An effective sorbent was selected to purify the PFCs during SPLE, followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), for quantification of PFCs. Conditions affecting the SPLE efficiency, including temperature, static extraction time, and number of extraction cycles used, were studied. The optimum conditions were found to be 120°C, 10 min, and 3 cycles, respectively. LC-MS/MS method was developed to obtain the optimal sensitivity specific to PFCs. The method detection limits (MDLs) were 0.006 to 0.48 ng/g for the PFCs studied and the linear response range was from 0.1 to 100 ng/g. To ensure accurate values were obtained, each step of the experiment was evaluated and controlled to prevent contamination. The optimized method was tested by performing spiking experiments in natural particulate matter matrices and good rates of recovery and reproducibility were obtained for all target compounds. Finally, the method was successfully used to measure 16 PFCs in the APM samples collected in Beijing over five years from 2015 to 2019. It is observed that some PFCs follow the trend of total PFC changes, and can be attributed to the environment influencing events and policy enforcement, while others don't seem to change as much with time of the year or from year to year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Tang
- National Institute of Metrology, 18 Beisanhuandonglu, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Ying Wang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Shengling Si
- Si Chuan Zhong Ce Biao Wu Technology Co. Ltd., Sichuan 610052, China
| | - Hongli Li
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - David Da Yong Chen
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z1, BC, Canada.
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2
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Udomkun P, Boonupara T, Sumitsawan S, Khan E, Pongpichan S, Kajitvichyanukul P. Airborne Pesticides-Deep Diving into Sampling and Analysis. TOXICS 2023; 11:883. [PMID: 37999535 PMCID: PMC10674914 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11110883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
The escalating utilization of pesticides has led to pronounced environmental contamination, posing a significant threat to agroecosystems. The extensive and persistent global application of these chemicals has been linked to a spectrum of acute and chronic human health concerns. This review paper focuses on the concentrations of airborne pesticides in both indoor and outdoor environments. The collection of diverse pesticide compounds from the atmosphere is examined, with a particular emphasis on active and passive air sampling techniques. Furthermore, a critical evaluation is conducted on the methodologies employed for the extraction and subsequent quantification of airborne pesticides. This analysis takes into consideration the complexities involved in ensuring accurate measurements, highlighting the advancements and limitations of current practices. By synthesizing these aspects, this review aims to foster a more comprehensive and informed comprehension of the intricate dynamics related to the presence and measurement of airborne pesticides. This, in turn, is poised to significantly contribute to the refinement of environmental monitoring strategies and the augmentation of precise risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patchimaporn Udomkun
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (P.U.); (T.B.); or (S.S.)
- Office of Research Administration, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | - Thirasant Boonupara
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (P.U.); (T.B.); or (S.S.)
| | - Sulak Sumitsawan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (P.U.); (T.B.); or (S.S.)
| | - Eakalak Khan
- Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction Department, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, USA;
| | - Siwatt Pongpichan
- NIDA Center for Research and Development of Disaster Prevention and Management, Graduate School of Social Development and Management Strategy, National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Bangkok 10240, Thailand
| | - Puangrat Kajitvichyanukul
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (P.U.); (T.B.); or (S.S.)
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3
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Pietrogrande MC, Demaria G, Russo M. Determination of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after molecularly imprinted polymer extraction. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 124:644-654. [PMID: 36182170 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A solid phase extraction procedure (SPE) is described for the quantitative analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmospheric particulate matter (PM), as ubiquitous environmental pollutants routinely measured in air quality monitoring. A SPE cartridge was used based on a molecular imprinted polymer (MIP-SPE) properly tailored for selective retention of PAHs with 4 and more benzene fused rings. The performance of the clean-up procedure was evaluated with the specific concern of selective purification towards saturated hydrocarbons, which are the PM components mostly interfering GC analysis of target PAHs. Under optimized operative conditions, the MIP-SPE provided analyte recovery close to 95% for heavier PAHs, from benzo(α)pyrene to benzo(ghi)perylene, and close to 90% for four benzene rings PAHs, with good reproducibility (RSDs: 2.5%-5.9%). Otherwise, C17-C32n-alkanes were nearly completely removed. The proposed method was critically compared with Solid Phase Micro Extraction (SPME) using a polyacrylate fiber. Both methods were successfully applied to the analysis of ambient PM2.5 samples collected at an urban polluted site. Between the two procedures, the MIP-SPE provided the highest recovery (R% ≥ 93%) for PAHs with 5 and more benzene rings, but lower for lighter PAHs. In contrast, SPME showed a mean acceptable R% value (∼ 80%) for all the investigated PAHs, except for the heaviest PAHs in the most polluted samples (R%: 110%-138%), suggesting an incomplete purification from the interfering n-hydrocarbons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Pietrogrande
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agraricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 17/19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Giorgia Demaria
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agraricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 17/19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Mara Russo
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agraricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato di Mortara 17/19, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
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4
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Optimization of the Efficient Extraction of Organic Components in Atmospheric Particulate Matter by Accelerated Solvent Extraction Technique and Its Application. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13050818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Organic components in atmospheric fine particulate matter have attracted much attention and several scientific studies have been performed, although most of the sample extraction methods are time consuming and laborious. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) is a new sample extraction method offering number of advantages, such as low extraction cost, reduced solvent and time consumption, and simplified extraction protocols. In order to optimize ASE methods to determine the concentrations of organic compounds in atmospheric fine particulate matter, different parameters were set out for the experiment, and the optimal method was selected according to the recoveries of the standard (i.e., n−alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)). This study also involves a comparison of the optimal method with the traditional method of ultrasonic extraction (USE). In addition, the optimized method was applied to measure the mass concentrations of organic compounds (n−alkanes and PAHs) in fine particulate matter samples collected in Beijing. The findings showed that the average recovery of target compounds using ASE was 96%, with the majority of compounds falling within the confidence levels, and the ASE recoveries and precision were consistent with the USE method tested. Furthermore, ASE combines the advantages of high extraction efficiency, automation, and reduced solvent use. In conclusion, the optimal ASE methods can be used to extract organic components in atmospheric particulate matter and serve as a point of reference for the development of analytical methodologies for assessing organic compounds in atmospheric particulate matter in China.
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Yan Y, Fan J, Shen K, Cao Y, Kang X, Zhu H. Sampling and concentration of particulate matter bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) basing on polystyrene nanofibers followed a determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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6
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Wang Y, Zhang H, Hou X, Zhang Q, Chen W, Shi J, Jiang G. Simultaneous determination of tetra-, penta- and hexachlorobutadienes in shellfish by gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 289:117845. [PMID: 34330014 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Polychloro-1,3-butadienes (polyCBDs) are attracting increasing concern due to their high toxicity. However, research on multiple polyCBDs in aquatic biota is still extremely limited. In this study, a sensitive method for simultaneous determination of nine polyCBD (Cl4-Cl6) congeners, including six tetrachlorobutadiene (TeCBD) isomers, two pentachlorobutadiene (PeCBD) isomers, and hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD), in shellfish was developed based on accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), solid-phase extraction (SPE) clean-up and gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ-MS/MS). Low method limits of detection (MDLs) in the range 0.03-0.21 ng/g dry weight for target analytes with satisfactory recoveries (47.7 %-70.6 %) were achieved. The valid method was then applied to analyze nine polyCBDs congeners in 42 shellfish and 11 fish samples collected from markets in eight coastal cities, China. Trace HCBD was detected in 14 samples, while TeCBDs and PeCBDs were under the MDLs in all the samples, indicating little contamination of these pollutants in the marketed shellfish and fish in China. Multiple polyCBDs especially TeCBDs and PeCBDs were firstly involved in the proposed method and investigation here, which lay the groundwork for future research on the environmental behavior and exposure risks of polyCBDs in aquatic biotas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaotian Wang
- Research Center for Analytical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China.
| | - Xingwang Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Weifang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Jianbo Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China
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Wang X, Li C, Wu D, Shen J, Wei Y, Wang C. Enrichment of polychlorinated biphenyls in river water by using magnetic adsorbents with high selectivity to nonplanar aromatic compounds and their analysis with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jccs.202100102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xuesong Wang
- Department of Analytical Science, Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education Key Laboratory, College of Chemistry and Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an China
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Analytical Science, Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education Key Laboratory, College of Chemistry and Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an China
| | - Dan Wu
- Department of Solid Phase Materials Sunresin New Materials Co., Ltd. Xi'an China
| | - Jiwei Shen
- Department of Analytical Science, Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education Key Laboratory, College of Chemistry and Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an China
| | - Yinmao Wei
- Department of Analytical Science, Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education Key Laboratory, College of Chemistry and Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an China
| | - Chaozhan Wang
- Department of Analytical Science, Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of Ministry of Education Key Laboratory, College of Chemistry and Materials Science Northwest University Xi'an China
- Instrumental Analysis Lab National Demonstration Center for Experimental Chemistry Education (Northwest University) Xi'an China
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Chen C, Shen Y, Li X, Meng X, Ma Z, An J, Lin Q. Chemical Composition Analysis, Indoor Diffusion Deposition Model and Pathogenic Mechanism of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5). EXPLORATORY RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESIS IN MEDICINE 2021; 000:000-000. [DOI: 10.14218/erhm.2020.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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9
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Ahad JME, Macdonald RW, Parrott JL, Yang Z, Zhang Y, Siddique T, Kuznetsova A, Rauert C, Galarneau E, Studabaker WB, Evans M, McMaster ME, Shang D. Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) in the Canadian environment: A review of sampling techniques, strategies and instrumentation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:114988. [PMID: 32679437 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A wide variety of sampling techniques and strategies are needed to analyze polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and interpret their distributions in various environmental media (i.e., air, water, snow, soils, sediments, peat and biological material). In this review, we provide a summary of commonly employed sampling methods and strategies, as well as a discussion of routine and innovative approaches used to quantify and characterize PACs in frequently targeted environmental samples, with specific examples and applications in Canadian investigations. The pros and cons of different analytical techniques, including gas chromatography - flame ionization detection (GC-FID), GC low-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-LRMS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet, fluorescence or MS detection, GC high-resolution MS (GC-HRMS) and compound-specific stable (δ13C, δ2H) and radiocarbon (Δ14C) isotope analysis are considered. Using as an example research carried out in Canada's Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR), where alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur-containing dibenzothiophenes are frequently targeted, the need to move beyond the standard list of sixteen EPA priority PAHs and for adoption of an AOSR bitumen PAC reference standard are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Robie W Macdonald
- Institute of Ocean Sciences, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney, BC, V8L 4B2, Canada
| | - Joanne L Parrott
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Zeyu Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Yifeng Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Tariq Siddique
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Alsu Kuznetsova
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Cassandra Rauert
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Elisabeth Galarneau
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, ON, M3H 5T4, Canada
| | | | - Marlene Evans
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Mark E McMaster
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Dayue Shang
- Pacific Environmental Science Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, North Vancouver, BC, V7H 1B1, Canada
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Li C, Begum A, Xue J. Analytical methods to analyze pesticides and herbicides. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH : A RESEARCH PUBLICATION OF THE WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION 2020; 92:1770-1785. [PMID: 32762111 DOI: 10.1002/wer.1431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews studies published in 2019, in the area of analytical techniques for determination of pesticides and herbicides. It should be noted that some of the reports summarized in this review are not directly related to but could potentially be used for water environment studies. Based on different methods, the literatures are organized into six sections, namely extraction methods, electrochemical techniques, spectrophotometric techniques, chemiluminescence and fluorescence methods, chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques, and biochemical assays. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Totally 141 research articles have been summarized. The review is divided into six parts. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques are the most widely used methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Afruza Begum
- Environmental Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, Regina, Canada
| | - Jinkai Xue
- Environmental Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, Regina, Canada
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A new approach for electrochemical detection of organochlorine compound lindane: Development of molecular imprinting polymer with polyoxometalate/carbon nitride nanotubes composite and validation. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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12
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Determination of polychlorinated biphenyls in tea using gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry combined with dispersive solid phase extraction. Food Chem 2020; 316:126290. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Kim I, Lee K, Lee S, Kim SD. Characteristics and health effects of PM 2.5 emissions from various sources in Gwangju, South Korea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 696:133890. [PMID: 31465927 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the toxicity of fine dust particles (PM2.5) is linked to specific components rather than their mass. However, research on the chemical composition and health risk of PM2.5 is insufficient. This study analyzed the metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) present in PM2.5 and evaluated their risk to health during outdoor activities. The concentration of metals was one order of magnitude higher than that of PAHs and the concentration and detection frequency of OCPs and PCBs were considerably lower than those of metals and PAHs. The lifetime excess cancer risk (LECR) for carcinogens in PM2.5 exceeded de minimis risk (1 × 10-6) as 1.33-3.44 × 10-6 (at 5th-95th percentile) as Cr(VI), As, and Cd showed high contributions. Children in the 2 < years <18 age group had a high risk of cancer due to early-life susceptibility. The proportion of ∑Metals to LECR was approximately 95%, while ∑PAHs attributed to 5% of total LECR. The effects of ∑OCPs and 2,3',4,4',5'-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB-123) on LECR were negligible. The hazard quotient (HQ) for non-carcinogens was <1, and non-carcinogenic effects were not expected. Mn, BaP, Pb, As, and Cd were the key determinants of the HQ values and among the identified PM2.5 sources they are closely related to industrial activities, oil combustion, and gasoline exhaust. Therefore, control strategies for these sources can effectively reduce PM2.5 risk. This study measured the concentrations of toxic compounds in ambient PM2.5 and considered only PM2.5 exposure during outdoor activities. PM2.5 health risk during the entire day would be higher than the PM2.5 risk determined in this study, and further research is required for this evaluating this risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Injeong Kim
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwangyul Lee
- School of Frontier Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 9201192, Japan
| | - Sunhong Lee
- Korea Water Resources Corporation, 200 Sintanjin-ro, Daedeok-gu, Deajeon 34350, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Don Kim
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea; Center for Chemicals Risk Assessment, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea.
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