Advanced liposome and polymersome-based drug delivery systems: Considerations for physicochemical properties, targeting strategies and stimuli-sensitive approaches

Key Transdermal Patch Using Cannabidiol-Loaded Nanocarriers with Better Pharmacokinetics in vivo

Purpose

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a promising therapeutic drug with low addictive potential and a favorable safety profile. However, CBD did face certain challenges, including poor solubility in water and low oral bioavailability. To harness the potential of CBD by combining it with a transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS). This innovative approach sought to develop a transdermal patch dosage form with micellar vesicular nanocarriers to enhance the bioavailability of CBD, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes.

Methods

A skin-penetrating micellar vesicular nanocarriers, prepared using nano emulsion method, cannabidiol loaded transdermal nanocarriers-12 (CTD-12) was presented with a small particle size, high encapsulation efficiency, and a drug-loaded ratio for CBD. The skin permeation ability used Strat-M™ membrane with a transdermal diffusion system to evaluate the CTD and patch of CTD-12 (PCTD-12) within 24 hrs. PCTD-12 was used in a preliminary pharmacokinetic study in rats to demonstrate the potential of the developed transdermal nanocarrier drug patch for future applications.

Results

In the transdermal application of CTD-12, the relative bioavailability of the formulation was 3.68 ± 0.17-fold greater than in the free CBD application. Moreover, PCTD-12 indicated 2.46 ± 0.18-fold higher relative bioavailability comparing with free CBD patch in the ex vivo evaluation. Most importantly, in the pharmacokinetics of PCTD-12, the relative bioavailability of PCTD-12 was 9.47 ± 0.88-fold higher than in the oral application.

Conclusion

CTD-12, a transdermal nanocarrier, represents a promising approach for CBD delivery, suggesting its potential as an effective transdermal dosage form.

Cutting-edge approaches for targeted drug delivery in breast cancer: beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer is a global health challenge with staggering statistics underscoring its pervasive impact. The burden of this disease is measured in terms of its prevalence and the challenges it poses to healthcare systems, necessitating a closer look at its epidemiology and impact. Current breast cancer treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies, have made significant strides in improving patient outcomes. However, they are not without limitations, often leading to adverse effects and the development of drug resistance. This comprehensive review delves into the complex landscape of breast cancer, including its incidence, current treatment modalities, and the inherent limitations of existing therapeutic approaches. It also sheds light on the promising role of nanotechnology, encompassing both inorganic and organic nanoparticles equipped with the ability to selectively deliver therapeutic agents to tumor sites, in the battle against breast cancer. The review also addresses the emerging therapies, their associated challenges, and the future prospects of targeted drug delivery in breast cancer management.

Emerging polymeric materials for treatment of oral diseases: design strategy towards a unique oral environment

Oral diseases are prevalent but challenging diseases owing to the highly movable and wet, microbial and inflammatory environment. Polymeric materials are regarded as one of the most promising biomaterials due to their good compatibility, facile preparation, and flexible design to obtain multifunctionality. Therefore, a variety of strategies have been employed to develop materials with improved therapeutic efficacy by overcoming physicobiological barriers in oral diseases. In this review, we summarize the design strategies of polymeric biomaterials for the treatment of oral diseases. First, we present the unique oral environment including highly movable and wet, microbial and inflammatory environment, which hinders the effective treatment of oral diseases. Second, a series of strategies for designing polymeric materials towards such a unique oral environment are highlighted. For example, multifunctional polymeric materials are armed with wet-adhesive, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory functions through advanced chemistry and nanotechnology to effectively treat oral diseases. These are achieved by designing wet-adhesive polymers modified with hydroxy, amine, quinone, and aldehyde groups to provide strong wet-adhesion through hydrogen and covalent bonding, and electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, by developing antimicrobial polymers including cationic polymers, antimicrobial peptides, and antibiotic-conjugated polymers, and by synthesizing anti-inflammatory polymers with phenolic hydroxy and cysteine groups that function as immunomodulators and electron donors to reactive oxygen species to reduce inflammation. Third, various delivery systems with strong wet-adhesion and enhanced mucosa and biofilm penetration capabilities, such as nanoparticles, hydrogels, patches, and microneedles, are constructed for delivery of antibiotics, immunomodulators, and antioxidants to achieve therapeutic efficacy. Finally, we provide insights into challenges and future development of polymeric materials for oral diseases with promise for clinical translation.

Polymersomes as Innovative, Stimuli-Responsive Platforms for Cancer Therapy

This review addresses the urgent need for more targeted and less toxic cancer treatments by exploring the potential of multi-responsive polymersomes. These advanced nanocarriers are engineered to deliver drugs precisely to tumor sites by responding to specific stimuli such as pH, temperature, light, hypoxia, and redox conditions, thereby minimizing the side effects associated with traditional chemotherapy. We discuss the design, synthesis, and recent applications of polymersomes, emphasizing their ability to improve therapeutic outcomes through controlled drug release and targeted delivery. Moreover, we highlight the critical areas for future research, including the optimization of polymersome-biological interactions and biocompatibility, to facilitate their clinical adoption. Multi-responsive polymersomes emerge as a promising development in nanomedicine, offering a pathway to safer and more effective cancer treatments.

Effect of bovine colostrum liposomes on the bioavailability of immunoglobulin G and their immunoregulatory function in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice

Bovine colostrum (BC) has high nutritional value; however, the low bioavailability of immune active substances in BC may affect their immunoregulatory function. Our previous studies indicated that encapsulating bovine colostrum with liposomes could enable the sustained release of immunoglobulin G in vitro; however, the effect of bovine colostrum liposomes (BCLs) on the bioavailability of immunoglobulins in vivo is still unknown. In addition, the immunoregulatory function of BCLs on immunosuppressed mice is still unclear. Therefore, our current study aimed to explore the effect of BCLs on the bioavailability of immunoglobulins, and further explore their immunoregulatory effect on immunosuppressed BALB/c mice. Through metabolic cage experiments, it was shown that BCLs decreased the urine and fecal concentrations of IgG and exhibited a higher bioavailability of IgG in mice than BC (about 2-fold). In addition, by establishing an immunosuppressed animal model, it was found that BCLs could increase the body weight, spleen weight, and thymus weight in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice, which further restored the serum levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon γ (IFN-γ). Through histology analysis, it was suggested that BCLs restored the structure of jejunal epithelial cells, which was accompanied by an improvement in intestinal cytokine levels (IL-4, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ). Finally, BCLs increased serum and intestine concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in immunosuppressed BALB/c mice, which further indicated that BCLs had a sustained-release effect for immunoglobulin G in vivo. Our current research will provide a basis for understanding the role of BCLs on the bioavailability of IgG and their immunoregulatory effect on immunosuppressed mice, which might further provide some reference for the application of BCLs.

Therapeutic synthetic and natural materials for immunoengineering

Immunoengineering is a rapidly evolving field that has been driving innovations in manipulating immune system for new treatment tools and methods. The need for materials for immunoengineering applications has gained significant attention in recent years due to the growing demand for effective therapies that can target and regulate the immune system. Biologics and biomaterials are emerging as promising tools for controlling immune responses, and a wide variety of materials, including proteins, polymers, nanoparticles, and hydrogels, are being developed for this purpose. In this review article, we explore the different types of materials used in immunoengineering applications, their properties and design principles, and highlight the latest therapeutic materials advancements. Recent works in adjuvants, vaccines, immune tolerance, immunotherapy, and tissue models for immunoengineering studies are discussed.

Electrospinning polymersomes into bead-on-string polyethylene oxide fibres for the delivery of biopharmaceuticals to mucosal epithelia

Fibrous mucoadhesive polymer membranes prepared using electrospinning demonstrate many advantages for mucosal drug delivery compared to other formulations. Previous electrospun membrane formulations have been developed mainly for the delivery of small molecule drugs. There remains great potential to further develop the technology for the delivery of vesicular vectors that allow administration of advanced therapeutic agents. However, there are no previous reports demonstrating the release of intact drug delivery vesicles from electrospun materials. Here, we describe incorporation and release of protein-loaded polymersomes from polyethylene oxide (PEO)-based electrospun membranes. Polymersomes comprising a copolymer of glycerol monomethacrylate (GMA) and hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HPMA) were prepared using polymerization-induced self-assembly and incorporated within PEO membranes using bead-on-string electrospinning at approximately 40 % w/w by polymer mass. Super-resolution fluorescence imaging showed that the vesicles remained intact and retained their encapsulated protein load within the fibre beads. Transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering demonstrated that polymersomes retained their morphology following release from the polymer fibres. F(ab) antibody fragments were encapsulated within polymersomes and then electrospun into membranes. 78 ± 13 % of the F(ab) remained encapsulated within polymersomes during electrospinning and retained functionality when released from electrospun membranes, demonstrating that the formulation is suitable for the delivery of biologics. Membranes were non-irritant to the oral epithelium and fluorescence microscopy detected accumulation of polymersomes within the epithelia following application. This innovative drug delivery approach represents a novel and potentially highly useful method for the administration of large molecular mass therapeutic molecules to diseased mucosal sites.

Mitochondrial-Oriented Injectable Hydrogel Microspheres Maintain Homeostasis of Chondrocyte Metabolism to Promote Subcellular Therapy in Osteoarthritis

Subcellular mitochondria serve as sensors for energy metabolism and redox balance, and the dynamic regulation of functional and dysfunctional mitochondria plays a crucial role in determining cells' fate. Selective removal of dysfunctional mitochondria at the subcellular level can provide chondrocytes with energy to prevent degeneration, thereby treating osteoarthritis. Herein, to achieve an ideal subcellular therapy, cartilage affinity peptide (WYRGRL)-decorated liposomes loaded with mitophagy activator (urolithin A) were integrated into hyaluronic acid methacrylate hydrogel microspheres through microfluidic technology, named HM@WY-Lip/UA, that could efficiently target chondrocytes and selectively remove subcellular dysfunctional mitochondria. As a result, this system demonstrated an advantage in mitochondria function restoration, reactive oxygen species scavenging, cell survival rescue, and chondrocyte homeostasis maintenance through increasing mitophagy. In a rat post-traumatic osteoarthritis model, the intra-articular injection of HM@WY-Lip/UA ameliorated cartilage matrix degradation, osteophyte formation, and subchondral bone sclerosis at 8 weeks. Overall, this study indicated that HM@WY-Lip/UA provided a protective effect on cartilage degeneration in an efficacious and clinically relevant manner, and a mitochondrial-oriented strategy has great potential in the subcellular therapy of osteoarthritis.

Dendrimersomes: Biomedical applications

In recent years, dendrimer-based vesicles, known as dendrimersomes, have garnered significant attention as highly promising alternatives to lipid vesicles in a variety of biomedical applications. Dendrimersomes offer several advantages, including relatively straightforward synthesis, non-immunogenic properties, stability in circulation, and minimal size variability. These vesicles are composed of Janus dendrimers, which are polymers characterized by two dendritic wedges with different terminal groups - hydrophilic and hydrophobic. This dendrimer structure enables the self-assembly of dendrimersomes. The purpose of this highlight is to provide an overview of recent advancements achieved through the utilization of biomimetic dendrimersomes in various biomedical applications such as drug and nucleic acid delivery.

Light-driven micro/nanomotors in biomedical applications

Nanotechnology brings hope for targeted drug delivery. However, most current drug delivery systems use passive delivery strategies with limited therapeutic efficiency. Over the past two decades, research on micro/nanomotors (MNMs) has flourished in the biomedical field. Compared with other driven methods, light-driven MNMs have the advantages of being reversible, simple to control, clean, and efficient. Under light irradiation, the MNMs can overcome several barriers in the body and show great potential in the treatment of various diseases, such as tumors, and gastrointestinal, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Herein, the classification and mechanism of light-driven MNMs are introduced briefly. Subsequently, the applications of light-driven MNMs in overcoming physiological and pathological barriers in the past five years are highlighted. Finally, the future prospects and challenges of light-driven MNMs are discussed as well. This review will provide inspiration and direction for light-driven MNMs to overcome biological barriers in vivo and promote the clinical application of light-driven MNMs in the biomedical field.

Bioresponsive Chimaeric Polymersomes Mediate Sustained and Liver-Specific siRNA Transfection In Vivo

The silencing of disease-causing genes with small interfering RNA (siRNA) offers a particularly effective therapeutic strategy for different disorders; however, its clinical efficacy relies on the development of nontoxic and tissue-specific delivery vehicles. Herein, we report that bioresponsive chimaeric polymersomes (BCP) with short poly(ethylenimine) as inner shell mediate highly efficacious, sustained, and liver-specific siRNA transfection in vivo. BCP exhibited remarkable encapsulation efficiencies of siRNA (95-100%) at siRNA-feeding contents of 15-25 wt %, to afford stable, small-sized (55-64 nm), and neutral-charged BCP-siRNA. siApoB-Loaded BCP (BCP-siApoB) outperformed lipofectamine counterparts and silenced 93% of ApoB mRNA in HepG2 cells at 50 nM siApoB without inducing cytotoxicity. Intriguingly, the in vivo studies using wild-type C57BL/6 mice revealed that BCP-siApoB preferentially accumulated in the liver, and a single dose of 4.5 mg/kg achieved over 90% downregulation of ApoB mRNA for at least 10 days. The systemic administration of BCP-siApoB at 4.5 mg/kg every 2 weeks or 1.5 mg/kg weekly in diet-induced obese mice could also achieve up to 80% silencing of ApoB mRNA. The liver specificity and silencing efficacy of BCP-siApoB could further be improved by decorating it with the trivalent N-acetylgalactosamine (TriGalNAc) ligand. These bioresponsive and liver-specific chimaeric polymersomes provide an enabling technology for siRNA therapy of various liver-related diseases.

Personalized Nasal Protective Devices: Importance and Perspectives

Nowadays, in addition to diseases caused by environmental pollution, the importance of personalized protection against various infectious agents has become of paramount importance. Besides medicine, several technical and technological studies have been carried out to develop suitable devices. One such revolutionary solution is the use of personalized nasal filters, which allow our body to defend itself more effectively against external environmental damage and pathogens. These filters are small devices that are placed in the nose and specifically filter the inhaled environmental contaminants, allergens, and microorganisms according to individual needs. These devices not only play a key role in maintaining our health but also contribute to environmental protection, reducing the inhalation of pollutants and their harmful impact on the natural environment. Another advantage of personalized filters is that they also provide an opportunity to strengthen our individual immune systems. The use of personalized filters allows medicine to provide optimized protection for everyone, focusing on individual genetic and immunological conditions. The momentum behind the development and research of personalized nasal filters has reached astonishing proportions today. Nowadays, many research groups and medical institutions are working to create new materials, nanotechnologies, and bioinformatics solutions in order to create even more effective personalized nasal filters that can also be shaped easily and safely. Considering the needs of the users is at least as important during development as the efficiency of the device. These two properties together determine the success of the product. Industry research focuses not only on improving the efficiency of devices, but also on making them more responsive to user needs, comfort, and portability. Based on all this, it can be concluded that personalized nasal filters can be a promising and innovative solution for protection against environmental pollutants and pathogens. Through a commitment to the research and development of technology, the long-term impact of such devices on our health and the environment can be significant, contributing to improving people's quality of life and creating a sustainable future. With unique solutions and continuous research, we give hope that in the future, despite the environmental challenges, we can enjoy the protection of our health with even more efficient and sophisticated devices.

Cold atmospheric plasma mediated cell membrane permeation and gene delivery-empirical interventions and pertinence

Delivery of genetic material to cells is an integral tool to analyze and reveal the genetic interventions in normal cellular processes and differentiation, disease development and for gene therapy. It has profound applications in pharmaceutical, agricultural, environmental and biotechnological sectors. The major methods relied for gene delivery or transfection requires either viral vectors or xenogenic carrier molecules, which renders probabilistic carcinogenic, immunogenic and toxic effects. A newly evolved physical method, Cold atmospheric plasma induced transfection neither needs vector nor carriers. The 4th state of matter 'Plasma' is a quasineutral ionized gas-containing ions, neutral atoms, electrons and reactive radical molecules; and possess electric and magnetic field, along with emanating photons and UV radiations. Plasma produced at atmospheric pressure conditions, and having room temperature is conferred as Low temperature plasma or Cold atmospheric plasma. Selective and controlled application of cold atmospheric plasma on tissues creates temporary, restorable pores on cell membranes that could be diligently manipulated for gene delivery. Research in this regard attained pace since 2016. Cold atmospheric plasma induces transfection by lipid peroxidation, electroporation, and clathrin dependent endocytosis in cell membranes, by virtue of its reactive radicals and electric field. Plasma formed reactive radicals, especially 'OH' penetrates to the cell membrane and cleaves the phosphate head group of membrane lipids, peroxidize and detaches fatty acid tails. This decreases membrane thickness, increases membrane fluidity and permeability. Simultaneously plasma formed ions, electrons and reactive radicals accumulate over cells, generating local electric field and neutralize the negative charge of cell membrane. This induces stress on cell membrane and disrupts its structural integrity, by infringing the dynamic equilibrium between surface tension, spatial repulsion and linear tension between the head groups of phospholipids, generating minute pores. Neutralization of membrane charge promote foreign, external plasmid and gene movement towards cells and its enhanced binding with ligands and receptors on cell membrane, instigating clathrin dependent endocytosis. In vitro and in vivo studies have successfully delivered plasmids, linear DNA, siRNA and miRNA to several established cell lines like, HeLa, PC12, CHL, HUVEC, Jurkat, MCF, SH-SY5Y, HT, B16F10, HaCaT, LP-1, etc., and live C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice, using cold atmospheric plasma. This review delineates the cell surface mechanism of plasma-induced transfection, critically summarizes the research progress in this context, plasma devices used, and the inimitable features of this method. Metabolic activity, cell function, and viability are not adversely affected by this process; moreover, the cell permeating plasma-formed reactive radicals are effectively defended by cellular antioxidant mechanisms like superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and cytokines, alleviating its toxicity. A deeper understanding on mechanism of plasma action on cells, its aftermath, and the research status in this field would provide a better insight on future avenues of research.

Bio-Inspired Nanomaterials for Micro/Nanodevices: A New Era in Biomedical Applications

Exploring bio-inspired nanomaterials (BINMs) and incorporating them into micro/nanodevices represent a significant development in biomedical applications. Nanomaterials, engineered to imitate biological structures and processes, exhibit distinctive attributes such as exceptional biocompatibility, multifunctionality, and unparalleled versatility. The utilization of BINMs demonstrates significant potential in diverse domains of biomedical micro/nanodevices, encompassing biosensors, targeted drug delivery systems, and advanced tissue engineering constructs. This article thoroughly examines the development and distinctive attributes of various BINMs, including those originating from proteins, DNA, and biomimetic polymers. Significant attention is directed toward incorporating these entities into micro/nanodevices and the subsequent biomedical ramifications that arise. This review explores biomimicry's structure-function correlations. Synthesis mosaics include bioprocesses, biomolecules, and natural structures. These nanomaterials' interfaces use biomimetic functionalization and geometric adaptations, transforming drug delivery, nanobiosensing, bio-inspired organ-on-chip systems, cancer-on-chip models, wound healing dressing mats, and antimicrobial surfaces. It provides an in-depth analysis of the existing challenges and proposes prospective strategies to improve the efficiency, performance, and reliability of these devices. Furthermore, this study offers a forward-thinking viewpoint highlighting potential avenues for future exploration and advancement. The objective is to effectively utilize and maximize the application of BINMs in the progression of biomedical micro/nanodevices, thereby propelling this rapidly developing field toward its promising future.