Synthesis and Characterization of 4-Formylphenylboronic Acid Cross-linked Chitosan Hydrogel with Dual Action: Glucose-Sensitivity and Controlled Insulin Release

Advancements in Injectable Hydrogels for Controlled Insulin Delivery: A Comprehensive Review of the Design, Properties and Therapeutic Applications for Diabetes and Its Complications

Glycemic management in diabetes patients remains heavily reliant on multiple daily insulin injections, which often leads to poor patient compliance and an elevated risk of hypoglycemia. To overcome these limitations, injectable hydrogels capable of encapsulating insulin within polymeric networks have emerged as a promising alternative. Ideally, a single injection can form an in situ depot that allows prolonged glycemic control and lower injection frequency. This review summarizes recent advances in injectable hydrogels for controlled insulin delivery, focusing on the polymer sources, crosslinking strategies, and stimuli-responsive release mechanisms. Synthetic polymers such as PEG, PNIPAM, and Pluronics dominate the current research due to their highly tunable properties, whereas naturally derived polysaccharides and proteins generally require further modifications for enhanced functionality. The crosslinking types, ranging from relatively weak physical interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, etc.) to dynamic covalent bonds with higher binding strength (e.g., Schiff base, phenylboronate ester), significantly influence the shear-thinning behavior and stimuli-responsiveness of hydrogel systems. Hydrogels' responsiveness to temperature, glucose, pH, and reactive oxygen species has enabled more precise insulin release, offering new options for improved diabetic management. Beyond glycemic regulation, this review also explores insulin-loaded hydrogels for treating complications. Despite the progress, challenges such as burst release, long-term biocompatibility, and scalability remain. Future research should focus on optimizing hydrogel design, supported by robust and comprehensive data.

Accelerating repair of infected bone defects through post-reinforced injectable hydrogel mediated antibacterial/immunoregulatory microenvironment at bone-hydrogel interface

Functional injectable hydrogel (IH) is promising for infected bone defects (IBDs) repair, but how to endow it with desired antibacterial/immunoregulatory functions as well as avoid mechanical failures during its manipulation has posed as main challenges. Herein, rosmarinic acid (RosA), a natural product with antibacterial/immunoregulatory activities, was utilized to develop a FCR IH through forming phenylboronic acid ester bonds with 4-formylphenyl phenylboronic acid (4-FPBA) grafted chitosan (CS) (FC). After being applied to the IBD site, the FCR IH was then injected with tobramycin (Tob) solution, another alkaline antibacterial drug, to induce in situ crystallization of the FC, endowing the resultant FCRT hydrogel with adaptively enhanced mechanical strength and structural stability. Owing to the specific structural composition, the FCRT hydrogel could sustainedly release Tob and RosA molecules at the IBD interface, effectively eliminating in situ bacterial infection. In addition, the released RosA molecules also induced the M2 polarization of in situ macrophages (Mφ), which was identified to be related to the NF-κB and PI3K-AKT pathways, therefore promoting the osteogenic differentiation of in situ bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Due to the simultaneous antibacterial/osteo-immunoregulatory microenvironment at the IBD interface, the repair of IBDs was proved to be greatly accelerated by the FCRT hydrogel.

ROS responsive conductive microspheres loaded with salvianolic acid B as adipose derived stem cell carriers for acute myocardial infarction treatment

Stem cell therapy is currently the most promising strategy for the treatment of myocardial infarction. However, the development of injectable cell carriers that can scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the infarct zone to improve transplanted cell survival remains a challenge. Here, we developed a ROS responsive conductive microsphere based on chitosan (CS) and dextran (DEX) with 4-formylphenylboronic acid (4-FPBA) as a cross-linking agent and the addition of graphite oxide (GO) and the anti-inflammatory agent salvianolic acid B (SalB), as a cell delivery carrier for myocardial infarction. These microspheres were crosslinked by dual dynamic networks of Schiff base and phenylborate bonds. The relationship between CS concentration and microsphere particle size, as well as the biocompatibility, ROS responsiveness, anti-inflammatory properties, and effects on myogenic differentiation of H9C2 cells were fully investigated. The microspheres exhibit good biocompatibility, proliferation promoting, differentiation promoting, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. When applied to mice myocardial infarction models, the ROS responsive conductive microspheres loaded with SalB and adipose derived stem cells (ADSC) exhibited excellent in vivo repair ability. In addition, they reduced myocardial fibrosis and promoted ventricular wall regeneration by promoting the expression of Connexin 43 (Cx43) and CD31, ultimately reshaping the infarcted myocardium, suggesting their great potential as cell delivery carriers for myocardial infarction treatment.

Multifunctional Polysaccharide Self-Healing Wound Dressing: NIR-Responsive Carboxymethyl Chitosan / Quercetin Hydrogel

As the misuse of antibiotics increases bacterial resistance, the treatment of infected wounds caused by bacteria encounters significant challenges. Conventional antimicrobial dressings often fall short in their ability to inhibit bacterial infections while simultaneously promoting wound healing. To address this issue, a polysaccharide self-healing hydrogel (CPP@PDA/Que3) wound dressing is successfully developed by incorporating quercetin and polydopamine nanoparticles into a carboxymethyl chitosan matrix. The dressing can be easily injected locally to create a protective barrier over the wound, effectively stopping bleeding and rapidly inhibiting inflammation. Furthermore, the CPP@PDA/Que3 hydrogel exhibits remarkable antioxidant and antibacterial properties, stemming from the combination of quercetin and near-infrared (NIR) photothermal therapy. It demonstrates the ability to eliminate 99.52% of Staphylococcus aureus and 99.39% of Escherichia coli in in vitro antibacterial experiments. Additionally, the in vivo wound healing experiment shows a healing rate of ≈97%. The experimental results indicate that under NIR laser (808 nm) irradiation, the polysaccharide-based hydrogel dressing significantly inhibits bacterial growth, reduces oxidative stress, expedites angiogenesis, and thereby accelerates the transition from inflammation to wound healing. In summary, the CPP@PDA/Que3 hydrogel exhibits significant potential as a wound dressing, providing a novel approach for clinically advancing the treatment of bacterial wounds.

Intestinal-Target and Glucose-Responsive Smart Hydrogel toward Oral Delivery System of Drug with Improved Insulin Utilization

An intelligent insulin delivery system targeting intestinal absorption and glucose responsiveness can enhance the bioavailability through oral insulin therapy, offering promising diabetes treatment. In this paper, a glucose and pH dual-response polymer hydrogel using carboxymethyl agarose modified with 3-amino-phenylboronic acid and l-valine (CPL) was developed as an insulin delivery carrier, exhibiting excellent biocompatibility and effective insulin encapsulation. The insulin encapsulated in the hydrogel (Ins-CPL) was released in a controlled manner in response to the in vivo stimulation of blood glucose and pH levels with higher levels of intracellular uptake and utilization of insulin in the intestinal environment simultaneously. Notably, the Ins-CPL hydrogel effectively regulated blood sugar in diabetic rats over a long period by simulating endogenous insulin, responding to changes in plasma pH and glucose levels, and overcoming the intestinal epithelium barrier. This indicates a significant boost in oral insulin bioavailability and broadens its application prospects.

A multifunctional self-reinforced injectable hydrogel for enhancing repair of infected bone defects by simultaneously targeting macrophages, bacteria, and bone marrow stromal cells

Injectable hydrogels (IHs) have demonstrated huge potential in promoting repair of infected bone defects (IBDs), but how to endow them with desired anti-bacterial, immunoregulatory, and osteo-inductive properties as well as avoid mechanical failure during their manipulation are challenging. In this regard, we developed a multifunctional AOHA-RA/Lap nanocomposite IH for IBDs repair, which was constructed mainly through two kinds of reversible cross-links: (i) the laponite (Lap) crystals mediated electrostatic interactions; (ii) the phenylboronic acid easter bonds between the 4-aminobenzeneboronic acid grafted oxidized hyaluronic acid (AOHA) and rosmarinic acid (RA). Due to the specific structural composition, the AOHA-RA/Lap IH demonstrated superior injectability, self-recoverability, spatial adaptation, and self-reinforced mechanical properties after being injected to the bone defect site. In addition, the RA molecules could be locally released from the hydrogel following a Weibull model for over 10 days. Systematic in vitro/vivo assays proved the strong anti-bacterial activity of the hydrogel against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Moreover, its capability of inducing M2 polarization of macrophages (Mφ) and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) was verified either, and the mechanism of the former was identified to be related to the JAK1-STAT1 and PI3K-AKT signaling pathways and that of the latter was identified to be related to the calcium signaling pathway, extracellular matrix (ECM) receptor interaction and TGF-β signaling pathway. After being implanted to a S. aureus infected rat skull defect model, the AOHA-RA/Lap IH significantly accelerated repair of IBDs without causing significant systemic toxicity. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Rosmarinic acid and laponite were utilized to develop an injectable hydrogel, promising for accelerating repair of infected bone defects in clinic. The gelation of the hydrogel was completely driven by two kinds of reversible cross-links, which endow the hydrogel superior spatial adaption, self-recoverability, and structural stability. The as-prepared hydrogel demonstrated superior anti-bacterial/anti-biofilm activity and could induce M2 polarization of macrophages and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. The mechanism behind macrophages polarization was identified to be related to the JAK1-STAT1 and PI3K-AKT signaling pathways. The mechanism behind osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs was identified to be related to the ECM receptor interaction and calcium signaling/TGF-β signaling pathways.

Applications and advancements of polysaccharide-based nanostructures for enhanced drug delivery

Growing demand for highly effective, site-specific delivery of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals using nano-sized carriers has prompted increased scrutiny of carrier biocompatibility and biodegradability. To address these concerns, biodegradable natural polymers have emerged as a transformative domain, offering non-toxic, precisely targetable carriers capable of finely modulating cargo pharmacokinetics while generating innocuous decomposition by-products. This comprehensive review illuminates the emergence of polysaccharide-based nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. These systems establish an interactive interface between drug and targeted organs, guided by strategic modifications to polysaccharide backbones, which facilitate the creation of morphologically, constitutionally, and characteristically vibrant nanostructures through various fabrication routes, underpinning their pivotal role in biomedical applications. Advancements crucial to enhancing polysaccharide-based drug delivery, such as surface modifications and bioinspired modifications for enhanced targeting, and stimuli-responsive release, strategies to overcome biological barriers, enhance tumor penetration, and optimize therapeutic outcomes are highlighted. This review also examines some potent challenges, and the contemporary way out of them, and discusses future perspectives in the field.

Recent developments in chitosan based microgels and their hybrids

Chitosan based microgels have gained great attention because of their chemical stability, biocompatibility, easy functionalization and potential uses in numerous fields. Production, properties, characterization and applications of chitosan based microgels have been systematically reviewed in this article. Some of these systems exhibit responsive behavior towards external stimuli like pH, light, temperature, glucose, etc. in terms of swelling/deswelling in an aqueous medium depending upon the functionalities present in the network which makes them a potential candidate for various applications in the fields of biomedicine, agriculture, catalysis, sensing and nanotechnology. Current research development and critical overview in this field accompanying by future possibilities is presented. The discussion is concluded with recommended possible future works for further progress in this field.

The Fabrication, Drug Loading, and Release Behavior of Porous Mannitol

Porous materials are widely used as an effective strategy for the solubilization of insoluble drugs. In order to improve the solubility and bioavailability of low water-solubility drugs, it is necessary to prepare porous materials. Mannitol is one of the most popular excipients in food and drug formulations. In this study, porous mannitol was investigated as a drug carrier for low water solubility drugs. Its fabrication, drug loading, and drug release mechanisms were investigated. Porous mannitol was fabricated using the co-spray-antisolvent process and utilizing polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP K30) as the template agent. Porous mannitol particles were prepared by changing the proportion of the template agent, spraying the particles with mannitol, and eluting with ethanol in order to regulate their pore structure. In subsequent studies, porous mannitol morphology and characteristics were determined systematically. Furthermore, curcumin and ibuprofen, two poorly water-soluble drugs, were loaded into porous mannitol, and their release profiles were analyzed. The results of the study indicated that porous mannitol can be prepared using PVP K30 as a template and that the amount of template agent can be adjusted in order to control the structure of the porous mannitol. When the template agent was added in amounts of 1%, 3%, and 5%, the mannitol pore size increased by 167.80%, 95.16%, and 163.98%, respectively, compared to raw mannitol. Molecular docking revealed that mannitol and drugs are adsorbents and adhere to each other by force interaction. The cumulative dissolution of curcumin and ibuprofen-loaded porous mannitol reached 69% and 70%, respectively. The release mechanism of curcumin and ibuprofen from drug-loaded mannitol was suitable for the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model. In summary, the co-spray-antisolvent method proved effective in fabricating porous materials rapidly, and porous mannitol had a remarkable effect on drug solubilization. The results obtained are conducive to the development of porous materials.

Iontophoretically controlled insulin delivery via water-soluble conductive polymer PANI:PSS and thermoplastic polyurethane matrix

Transdermal insulin delivery is an alternative route to deliver insulin through the body skin with the challenges to overcome the low drug skin permeability and high molecular weight. Polyaniline doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonic acid) (PANI:PSS), a conductive polymer with the high electrical conductivity, was synthesized and utilized as a drug carrier to improve the drug delivery capability from a porous thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix. The insulin was electrostatically attached to PANI:PSS based on the ion exchange between insulin and PSS. For the in vitro drug release of insulin loaded PANI:PSS relative to the pristine insulin alone, the amount of insulin released was improved to 84.70% with the time to equilibrium of 2 h under the electrical field of 6 V. For the ex vivo release-skin permeation, the amount insulin released and permeated became lower at 57.02% with time to equilibrium of 2 h, due to the pig skin acting as a barrier for insulin permeation. The modified insulin transdermal delivery, with PANI:PSS as the drug carrier and drug enhancer relative to without, is shown here to influence the insulin release rate, amount, and duration, suitable to treat diabetes patients.

Smart stimuli-responsive polysaccharide nanohydrogels for drug delivery: a review

Polysaccharides have found extensive utilization as biomaterials in drug delivery systems owing to their remarkable biocompatibility, simple functionalization, and inherent biological properties. Within the array of polysaccharide-based biomaterials, there is a growing fascination for self-assembled polysaccharide nanogels (NG) due to their ease of preparation and enhanced appeal across diverse biomedical appliances. Nanogel (or nanohydrogel), networks of nanoscale dimensions, are created by physically or chemically linking polymers together and have garnered immense interest as potential carriers for delivering drugs due to their favorable attributes. These include biocompatibility, high stability, the ability to adjust particle size, the capacity to load drugs, and their inherent potential to modify their surface to actively target specific cells or tissues via the attachment of ligands that can recognize corresponding receptors. Nanogels can be engineered to respond to specific stimuli, such as pH, temperature, light, or redox conditions, allowing controlled release of the encapsulated drugs. This intelligent targeting capability helps prevent drug accumulation in unintended tissues and reduces the potential side effects. Herein, an overview of nanogels is offered, comprising their methods of preparation and the design of stimulus-responsive nanogels that enable controlled release of drugs in response to specific stimuli.

Synthesis and characterization of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)/chitosan-graft poly (acrylic acid) conjugate hyaluronate for targeted delivery of methotrexate drug to colon cancer cells

Anti-cancer medications that are delivered specifically to the tumor site possess greater efficacy with less negative effects on the body. So, the current research relies on a novel method for intercalating the anticancer medication methotrexate in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)/chitosan-graft poly (acrylic acid) conjugated with sodium hyaluronate. The graft copolymers were synthesized through persulfate-initiated grafting of acrylic acid onto a binary mixture of various amounts of chitosan and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (2/1, 1/1 and 1/2, w/w) using microwave irradiation. The graft copolymer was conjugated with sodium hyaluronate for targeted delivery of methotrexate drug specifically to colon cancer cell lines (Caco-2). The graft copolymers were characterized by many physical techniques. The maximum drug loading efficiency was observed in case of the graft copolymer/hyaluronate rich in chitosan content 69.7 ± 2.7 % (4.65 mg/g) with a sustained release about 98.6 ± 1.12 %, at pH 7.4. The findings of severe cytotoxicity having a value of the IC₅₀ of 11.7 μg/ml, a substantial proportion of apoptotic cells (67.88 %), and an elevated level of DNA breakage inside the treated Caco-2 cells verified the effective release of methotrexate from the loaded copolymer matrix. Besides, the high stability and biological activity of the released drug was exhibited through occurrence of greater increment of reactive oxygen species and effect on the extent of expression of genes connected to apoptosis and anti-oxidant enzymes within the treated cells. Ultimately, this system can be recommended as potent carrier for methotrexate administration to targeted cancerous cells in the colon.

Smart stimuli-responsive chitosan hydrogel for drug delivery: A review

Smart stimuli-responsive materials can respond to different signals (pH, temperature, light, electricity, etc.), and they have become a hot research topic for drug delivery. As a polysaccharide polymer with excellent biocompatibility, chitosan can be obtained from diverse natural sources. Chitosan hydrogels with different stimuli-response capabilities are widely applied in the drug delivery field. This review highlights and discusses the research progress on chitosan hydrogels concerning their stimuli-responsive capabilities. The feature of various stimuli-responsive kinds of hydrogels is outlined, and their potential use of drug delivery is summarized. Furthermore, the questions and future development chances of stimuli-responsive chitosan hydrogels are analyzed by comparing the current published literature, and the directions for the intelligent development of chitosan hydrogels are discussed.

Nucleopeptide-Coupled Injectable Bioconjugated Guanosine-Quadruplex Hydrogel with Inherent Antibacterial Activity

The multicomponent reaction-directed self-assembled hydrogels offer the opportunities to fabricate materials with ubiquitous properties which sometimes are not possible to generate from single components. Therefore, multicomponent-derived hydrogels have enormous applications in biomedical fields, and the number of such systems is increasing day by day. Herein, the multicomponent self-assembly techniques have been employed to develop a biomimetic low-molecular-weight G-quadruplex hydrogel under physiological conditions. The bioconjugation of guanosine, 4-formylphenylboronic acid, and cytosine-functionalized nucleopeptide (NP) is important to generate the multicomponent self-assembled dynamic imino-boronate ester-mediated bioconjugated G-quadruplex hydrogels. Using thioflavin T fluorescence assay, powder X-ray diffraction, and circular dichroism spectroscopic techniques, we confirm the existence of a G-quartet-like structure as the key parameter for the formation of nanofibrillar hydrogels. The multicomponent self-assembled G-quadruplex hydrogel possesses excellent inherent antibacterial activity against a broad range of bacterial species. The in vitro cytocompatibility of the synthesized hydrogel was evaluated on MCF-7 and HEK 293T cell lines to study the biocompatibility of the hydrogel. The proposed injectable, biocompatible, and NP-coupled G-quadruplex hydrogel with inherent antibacterial efficiency holds promising importance to prevent localized bacterial infections.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Swelling Properties of a New Highly Absorbent Hydrogel Based on Carboxymethyl Guar Gum Reinforced with Bentonite and Silica Particles for Disposable Hygiene Products

Superabsorbent polymers derived from petroleum have been widely used as the primary component of high-water-absorption disposable sanitary products. However, environmental concerns as well as unstable market prices influence the quality of disposable hygiene products. The development of superabsorbent polymers from natural, non-petroleum-derived materials has become more predominant. In the present study, two borax-cross-linked carboxymethyl guar-based superabsorbents with bentonite (CMG-Bt) and fumed silica particle reinforcement (CMG-Bt-Si) were synthesized. The materials have been fully characterized by various techniques. The swelling behavior was studied through free swelling capacity (FSC) and centrifuge retention capacity (CRC). The swelling kinetics and urea absorption capacity were further analyzed. The effects of the cross-linking ratio, mineral clay, silica particles, and pH of the liquids on the swelling properties of the superabsorbents have been studied. The incorporation of silica particles demonstrated a positive effect on water uptake reaching 78.63 and 41.09 g/g of FSC and CRC, respectively, at an optimum pH of 6.8. The optimum swelling kinetics were attributed to CMG-Bt-Si of 5 wt % silica particle content, indicating a velocity parameter (ζ) of 41 s in saline solution. Finally, the highest swelling values were obtained at 10, 10, and 5 wt % for the cross-linking ratio, bentonite content, and silica particle content, respectively; in addition, the absorption of urea by the CMG-Bt-Si material was also confirmed.

Recent Advances in Adsorptive Nanocomposite Membranes for Heavy Metals Ion Removal from Contaminated Water: A Comprehensive Review

Water contamination is one of the most urgent concerns confronting the world today. Heavy metal poisoning of aquatic systems has piqued the interest of various researchers due to the high toxicity and carcinogenic consequences it has on living organisms. Due to their exceptional attributes such as strong reactivity, huge surface area, and outstanding mechanical properties, nanomaterials are being produced and employed in water treatment. In this review, recent advances in the use of nanomaterials in nanoadsorptive membrane systems for wastewater treatment and heavy metal removal are extensively discussed. These materials include carbon-based nanostructures, metal nanoparticles, metal oxide nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and layered double hydroxide-based compounds. Furthermore, the relevant properties of the nanostructures and the implications on their performance for water treatment and contamination removal are highlighted. The hydrophilicity, pore size, skin thickness, porosity, and surface roughness of these nanostructures can help the water permeability of the nanoadsorptive membrane. Other properties such as surface charge modification and mechanical strength can improve the metal adsorption effectiveness of nanoadsorptive membranes during wastewater treatment. Various nanocomposite membrane fabrication techniques are also reviewed. This study is important because it gives important information on the roles of nanomaterials and nanostructures in heavy metal removal and wastewater treatment.

Functional Thermoresponsive Hydrogel Molecule to Material Design for Biomedical Applications

Temperature-induced, rapid changes in the viscosity and reproducible 3-D structure formation makes thermos-sensitive hydrogels an ideal delivery system to act as a cell scaffold or a drug reservoir. Moreover, the hydrogels’ minimum invasiveness, high biocompatibility, and facile elimination from the body have gathered a lot of attention from researchers. This review article attempts to present a complete picture of the exhaustive arena, including the synthesis, mechanism, and biomedical applications of thermosensitive hydrogels. A special section on intellectual property and marketed products tries to shed some light on the commercial potential of thermosensitive hydrogels.

Size-Dependent Antibacterial, Antidiabetic, and Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Solvent Extraction of Rosa indica L. Petals

In this study, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are synthesized through a green approach by employing Rosa indica L. petal (RE) extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents, which are extracted using three different solvents: ethanol (Et), acetone (Ac), and water (Aq). The phase formation of the AgNPs is confirmed using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Morphological analysis is performed using a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), which reveals that the AgNPs are spherical in shape. The size is estimated using ImageJ software, which is found to be ~12, 18, and 770 nm for RE-Ac-Ag, RE-Et-Ag, and RE-Aq-Ag, respectively. The phytochemicals of Rosa indica L. petals involved in the formation of the AgNPs are studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Finally, these materials are studied for their antibacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and hemolytic activity, as well as cell toxicity properties. The materials, RE-Ac-Ag and RE-Et-Ag, are found to be more effective than RE-Aq-Ag in inhibiting E. coli (Gram-negative bacteria) and S. aureus (Gram-positive bacteria). Hemolytic studies reveal that all of the samples show concentration-dependent activity up to 50 µg/mL. RE-Ac-Ag and RE-Et-Ag exhibit nonhemolytic behavior, whereas RE-Aq-Ag remains nonhemolytic until 100 µg/mL. The antidiabetic ability of the AgNPs is evaluated using α-amylase inhibition assay (DNSA assay) and α-glucosidase inhibition assay. The results are found to be effective, with IC₅₀ values of α-amylase and α-glycosidase being 50, 50, and 75 µg/mL for RE-Et-Ag, RE-Ac-Ag, and RE-Aq-Ag, respectively. DPPH assay shows that the AgNPs inhibited the antioxidants well, with IC₅₀ values of 40 µg/mL for RE-Et-Ag and RE-Ac-Ag and 60 µg/mL for RE-Aq-Ag. The toxicity study reveals that the AgNPs show size- and concentration-dependent behavior. Overall, it is realized from the findings that RE-Ac-Ag, RE-Et-Ag, and RE-Aq-Ag show size-dependent antibacterial, antidiabetic, and toxicity properties.

Recent Advancements in Microneedle Technology for Multifaceted Biomedical Applications

Microneedle (MNs) technology is a recent advancement in biomedical science across the globe. The current limitations of drug delivery, like poor absorption, low bioavailability, inadequate skin permeation, and poor biodistribution, can be overcome by MN-based drug delivery. Nanotechnology made significant changes in fabrication techniques for microneedles (MNs) and design shifted from conventional to novel, using various types of natural and synthetic materials and their combinations. Nowadays, MNs technology has gained popularity worldwide in biomedical research and drug delivery technology due to its multifaceted and broad-spectrum applications. This review broadly discusses MN's types, fabrication methods, composition, characterization, applications, recent advancements, and global intellectual scenarios.