Characterization and in vitro biocompatibility of catanionic assemblies formed with oppositely charged dicetyl amphiphiles

Innovative approaches to cationic and anionic (catanionic) amphiphiles self-assemblies: Synthesis, properties, and industrial applications

Meeting the contemporary demand for the development of functional, biocompatible, and environment friendly self-assembled structures using efficient, cost-effective, and energy-saving methods, the field of colloids has witnessed a surge in interest. Research into cationic and anionic (catanionic) surfactant combinations has gained momentum due to their distinct advantages and synergistic properties in this context. Catanionic self-assemblies have emerged as promising contenders for addressing these requirements. Catanionic self-assemblies possess high stability, adjustable surface charge, and low critical aggregation concentration. This comprehensive review article distinguishes between cationic/anionic non-equimolar and equimolar ratio mixing formation of high-salt catanionic self-assemblies known as catanionic mixture and salt-free counterparts, termed ion-pair amphiphiles, respectively. It explores diverse synthesis techniques, emphasizing the roles of solvents, salts, and pH conditions and covers both experimental and theoretical aspects of state-of-the-art catanionic self-assemblies. Additionally, the review investigates the development of multi-responsive catanionic self-assemblies using light, pH, temperature, and redox, responsive cationic/anionic amphiphiles. It provides an in-depth exploration of potential synergistic interactions and properties, underscoring their practical importance in a wide range of industrial applications. The review explores challenges like precipitation, stability and identifies knowledge gaps, creating opportunities in the dynamic catanionic self-assembly field. It aims to offer insights into the journey of catanionic self-assemblies, from inception to current status, appealing to a broad audience invested in their scientific and industrial potential.

Model Catanionic Vesicles from Biomimetic Serine-Based Surfactants: Effect of the Combination of Chain Lengths on Vesicle Properties and Vesicle-to-Micelle Transition

Mixtures of cationic and anionic surfactants often originate bilayer structures, such as vesicles and lamellar liquid crystals, that can be explored as model membranes for fundamental studies or as drug and gene nanocarriers. Here, we investigated the aggregation properties of two catanionic mixtures containing biomimetic surfactants derived from serine. The mixtures are designated as 12Ser/8-8Ser and 14Ser/10-10Ser, where mSer is a cationic, single-chained surfactant and n-nSer is an anionic, double-chained one (m and n being the C atoms in the alkyl chains). Our goal was to investigate the effects of total chain length and chain length asymmetry of the catanionic pair on the formation of catanionic vesicles, the vesicle properties and the vesicle/micelle transitions. Ocular observations, surface tension measurements, video-enhanced light microscopy, cryogenic scanning electron microscopy, dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering were used to monitor the self-assembly process and the aggregate properties. Catanionic vesicles were indeed found in both systems for molar fractions of cationic surfactant ≥0.40, always possessing positive zeta potentials (ζ = +35-50 mV), even for equimolar sample compositions. Furthermore, the 14Ser/10-10Ser vesicles were only found as single aggregates (i.e., without coexisting micelles) in a very narrow compositional range and as a bimodal population (average diameters of 80 and 300 nm). In contrast, the 12Ser/8-8Ser vesicles were found for a wider sample compositional range and as unimodal or bimodal populations, depending on the mixing ratio. The aggregate size, pH and zeta potential of the mixtures were further investigated. The unimodal 12Ser/8-8Ser vesicles (<D_H> ≈ 250 nm, pH ≈ 7-8, ζ ≈ +32 mV and a cationic/anionic molar ratio of ≈2:1) are particularly promising for application as drug/gene nanocarriers. Both chain length asymmetry and total length play a key role in the aggregation features of the two systems. Molecular insights are provided by the main findings.

Formation of catanionic vesicles by threonine-derived surfactants and gemini surfactants based on conventional or serine-derived headgroups: designing versatile and cytocompatible nanocarriers

In this work, we explore the ability of newly synthesized threonine-derived surfactants to form robust, versatile and cytocompatible catanionic vesicles when mixed with gemini surfactants, as potential effective nanocarriers for biomolecules. The threonine surfactants consist of single-tailed amphiphiles with carboxylate headgroups and varying alkyl tail length, CnThr, where n is the (even) number of tail C atoms, varying from 8 to 16. After an initial characterization of the micellization behavior of the neat CnThr surfactants (at pH = 7 and 12), the dodecyl derivative, C12Thr, was selected as the optimal surfactant to investigate regions of formation of spontaneous catanionic vesicles. Phase behavior studies and microstructural characterization of mixtures involving both conventional bis-quat n-s-n gemini (where n and s are the tail and spacer number of C atoms) and biocompatible serine-derived gemini surfactants were carried out. Light and electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements show spontaneous vesicles indeed form and exhibit versatile features in terms of average size, morphology, polydispersity, surface charge and pH. The toxicological profile of the neat surfactants and C12Thr/gemini vesicles based on MTT assays with a L929 cell line was also evaluated, showing good levels of in vitro cytocompatibility. Overall, the assortment of developed catanionic vesicles offers very attractive physicochemical and biological features to be explored for delivery purposes.

Interface interaction between high-siliceous/calcareous mineral granules and model cell membranes dominated by electrostatic force

High-siliceous/calcareous mineral granules may cause cytotoxicity by attaching to cell membranes. In this research, giant (GUVs) and small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) were used as model membranes for studying the interaction between high-siliceous/calcareous mineral granules (micro calcite, micro quartz, nano calcium carbonate, and nano silica) and artificial membranes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and fluorescence labeling experiments suggest that nano calcium carbonate (nano CaCO₃) and nano silica (nano SiO₂) induce gelation by disrupting the oppositely charged membranes, indicating the important role of electrostatic forces. Thereby, the mineral granule size affects the electrostatic interactions and thus leading to the damage of the membranes. FTIR spectra and molecular dynamics reveal that mineral granules mainly interact with -PO₂^-, -OH, and -C-N(CH₃)₃⁺ groups in phospholipids. The electrostatic force between nano minerals and phospholipids is greater in the case SiO₂ when compared to CaCO₃. Moreover, nano SiO₂ forms the strongest hydrogen bond with the -PO₂^- group as confirmed by FTIR. Thus, nano SiO₂ causes the greatest damage to membranes. This research provides a deeper understanding of the mechanism regarding the interaction between inhalable mineral granules and cell membranes.

Aggregation Behavior, Antibacterial Activity and Biocompatibility of Catanionic Assemblies Based on Amino Acid-Derived Surfactants

The surface activity, aggregates morphology, size and charge characteristics of binary catanionic mixtures containing a cationic amino acid-derived surfactant N(π), N(τ)-bis(methyl)-L-Histidine tetradecyl amide (DMHNHC₁₄) and an anionic surfactant (the lysine-based surfactant N^α-lauroyl-N^εacetyl lysine (C₁₂C₃L) or sodium myristate) were investigated for the first time. The cationic surfactant has an acid proton which shows a strong pK_a shift irrespective of aggregation. The resulting catanionic mixtures exhibited high surface activity and low critical aggregation concentration as compared with the pure constituents. Catanionic vesicles based on DMHNHC₁₄/sodium myristate showed a monodisperse population of medium-size aggregates and good storage stability. According to Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS), the characteristics of the bilayers did not depend strongly on the system composition for the positively charged vesicles. Negatively charged vesicles (cationic surfactant:myristate ratio below 1:2) had similar bilayer composition but tended to aggregate. The DMHNHC₁₄-rich vesicles exhibited good antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and their bactericidal effectivity declined with the decrease of the cationic surfactant content in the mixtures. The hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity of these catanionic formulations against non-tumoral (3T3, HaCaT) and tumoral (HeLa, A431) cell lines also improved by increasing the ratio of cationic surfactant in the mixture. These results indicate that the biological activity of these systems is mainly governed by the cationic charge density, which can be modulated by changing the cationic/anionic surfactant ratio in the mixtures. Remarkably, the incorporation of cholesterol in those catanionic vesicles reduces their cytotoxicity and increases the safety of future biomedical applications of these systems.

Vesicle based ultrasonic-assisted extraction of saponins in Panax notoginseng

A simple and effective vesicle based ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) method was developed for extraction of active compounds in functional food. The target analytes were determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detector. Surfactant vesicle was adopted as extraction solvent. Different operating conditions including the type and concentration of vesicle, extraction time and solid to liquid ratio were investigated by single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. Optimized experimental conditions were 1% (w/v) of DTAB/SDS vesicle, 20 min of extraction time and 160 mg/mL of solid to liquid ratio. The proposed method provided good linearity in the linear range of 10-1000 μg/mL with regression coefficients larger than 0.999, low limits of detection of 27.64-55.67 ng/mL, good precision with relative standard deviations below 0.35%, and satisfactory recoveries of 83.84-90.92% for tested saponins. Consequently, the proposed vesicle based UAE method was well suited for the extraction of saponins in Panax notoginseng.

Surface charge tunable catanionic vesicles based on serine-derived surfactants as efficient nanocarriers for the delivery of the anticancer drug doxorubicin

Self-assembled vesicles composed of amino acid-based cationic/anionic surfactant mixtures show promise as novel effective drug nanocarriers. Here, we report the in vitro performance of vesicles based on cationic (16Ser) and anionic (8-8Ser) serine-based surfactants using a cancer cell model for the delivery of the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). This catanionic mixture yields both negatively (0.20 in the cationic surfactant molar fraction, x16Ser) and positively (x16Ser = 0.58) charged vesicles, hence providing a surface charge tunable system. Low toxicity is confirmed for concentration ranges below 32 μM in both formulations. DOX is successfully encapsulated in the vesicles, resulting in a surface charge switch to negative for the (0.58) system, making both (0.20) and (0.58) DOX-loaded vesicles highly interesting for systemic administration. High uptake by cells was demonstrated using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Drug accumulation results in an increase of cell uptake up to 250% and 200% for the (0.20) and (0.58) vesicles, respectively, compared to free DOX and with localizations near the nuclear regions in the cells. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies show that DOX-loaded vesicles induce cell death, confirming the therapeutic potential of the formulations. Furthermore, the efficient accumulation of the drug inside the cell compartments harbors the potential for optimization strategies including phased delivery for prolonged treatment periods or even on-demand release.