Delivery of benzoylaconitine using biodegradable nanoparticles to suppress inflammation via regulating NF-κB signaling

Polymeric Nanosystems: A Breakthrough Approach to Treating Inflammation and Inflammation Related Diseases

Inflammation processes can cause mild to severe damage in the human body and can lead to a large number of inflammation-related diseases (IRD) such as cancer, neural, vascular, and pulmonary diseases. Limitations of anti-inflammatory drugs (AID) application are reflected in high therapeutic doses, toxicity, low bioavailability and solubility, side effects, etc. Polymeric nanosystems (PS) have been recognized as a safe and effective technology that is able to overcome these limitations by AID encapsulation and is able to answer to the specific demands of the IRD treatment. PS are attracting great attention due to their versatility, biocompatibility, low toxicity, fine-tuned properties, functionality, and ability for precise delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs to the targeted sites in the human body. This article offers an overview of three classes of polymeric nanosystems: a) dendrimers, b) polymeric micelles and polymeric nanoparticles, and c) polymeric filomicelles, as well as their properties, preparation, and application in IRD treatment. In the future, the number of PS formulations in clinical practice will certainly increase.

Natural product extract fractions as potential arthritis treatments: A detailed analysis using in-silico, in-vivo, and in-vitro methods

Two characteristics of the systemic autoimmune disease rheumatoid arthritis (RA) include extra-articular involvement and inflammatory arthritis. It is a long-term inflammatory condition that mostly affects the synovial joints and is often triggered by a confluence of environmental factors, including tobacco use, and genetics. The review investigates natural products' role in arthritis through three key approaches. In-silico analysis identifies molecular mechanisms and targets of these products, revealing their potential for therapeutic use. In-vivo studies evaluate how well these products work and their safety in reducing joint inflammation. In-vitro studies focus on how these compounds interact at the cellular level and their effects on signaling pathways. Together, these approaches offer a comprehensive understanding of how natural products could benefit arthritis management. This review focuses on translational studies and highlights the possible role of natural compounds as adjunctive therapies to conventional arthritis treatments. In conclusion, this study indicates that natural products have potential advantages in treating osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis based on in-silico analysis which shows anti-inflammatory effects, in-vivo studies that reduce joint inflammation, and in-vitro studies that amplify arthritis management. To improve the therapeutic advantages of natural products utilized for treating arthritis, an all-inclusive examination has been done to give direction for the following research efforts.

Wutou decoction alleviates arthritis inflammation in CIA mice by regulating Treg cell stability and Treg/Th17 balance via the JAK2/STAT3 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wutou Decoction (WTD) is a classic traditional Chinese medicine formula, which has shown clinical efficacy in treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The Treg stability and Th17/Treg imbalance is an important immunological mechanism in RA progression. Whether WTD regulates CD4+ T cell subsets has not been thoroughly investigated yet.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to explore the potential role and mechanisms of WTD in regulating the diminished stability of Treg cells and the imbalance of CD4+ T cell subsets via in vivo and in vitro experiments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, the therapeutic effects of WTD on the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse and its potential regulatory function on CD4+ T cell subsets were evaluated in vivo. Animal specimens were collected after 31 days of treatment with WTD. The anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of WTD were assessed through arthritis scoring, body weight, spleen index, serum IL-6 levels, and micro-PET/CT imaging. Gene enrichment analysis was performed to evaluate the activation T cell-related signaling pathway. Flow cytometry was used to determine the proportions of CD4+ T cell subsets in vitro and in vitro. Additionally, ELISA was used to assess the secretion of IL-10 and TGF-β by Treg cells under inflammatory conditions. The suppressive function of Treg cells on cell proliferation under inflammatory conditions was examined using CFSE labeling. Immunofluorescence staining was performed to detect the phosphorylation levels of STAT3 in CD4+ T cells from mouse spleen tissues. Western blotting was used to evaluate the phosphorylation levels of JAK2/STAT3 in Treg cells.

RESULTS

WTD significantly alleviated joint inflammation in CIA mice. WTD reduced serum IL-6 levels in CIA mice, improved their body weight and spleen index. WTD treatment inhibited the activation of CD4+ T cell subgroup-related signaling in the joint tissues of CIA mice. In vitro and in vitro experiments showed that WTD increased the proportion of Treg cells and decreased the proportion of Th17 cells in CIA mice spleen. Furthermore, WTD promoted the secretion of IL-10 and TGF-β by Treg cells and enhanced the inhibitory capacity of Treg cells on cell proliferation under inflammatory conditions. Immunofluorescence detected decreased STAT3 phosphorylation levels in CD4+ T cells from CIA mice spleen, while western blotting revealed a decrease in JAK2/STAT3 phosphorylation levels in Treg cells in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 phosphorylation is a potential mechanism through which WTD improves Treg cell stability, balances CD4+ T cell subsets, and attenuates RA joint inflammation.

Peptide functionalized biomimetic gene complexes enhance specificity for vascular endothelial regeneration

Gene delivery presents great potential in endothelium regeneration and prevention of vascular diseases, but its outcome is inevitably limited by high shear stress and instable microenvironment. Highly efficient nanosystems may alleviate the problem with strong dual-specificity for diseased site and targeted cells. Hence, biomimetic coatings incorporating EC-targeting peptides were constructed by platelets and endothelial cells (ECs) for surface modification. A series of biomimetic gene complexes were fabricated by the biomimetic coatings to deliver pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 plasmid (pVEGF) for rapid recovery of endothelium. The gene complexes possessed good biocompatibility with macrophages, stability with serum and showed no evident cytotoxicity for ECs even at very high concentrations. Furthermore, the peptide modified gene complexes achieved selective internalization in ECs and significant accumulation in endothelium-injured site, especially the REDV-modified and EC-derived gene complexes. They substantially enhanced VEGF expression at mRNA and protein levels, thereby enabling a wound to heal completely within 24 h according to wound healing assay. In an artery endothelium-injured mouse model, the REDV-modified and EC-derived gene complexes presented efficient re-endothelialization with the help of enhanced specificity. The biomimetic gene complexes offer an efficient dual-targeting strategy for rapid recovery of endothelium, and hold potential in vascular tissue regeneration.

Benzoylaconine: Potential Therapeutic Agent for Cardiovascular Diseases From Fuzi

Modern pharmacological studies have elucidated the presence of aconitine (AC) alkaloids, polysaccharides, and saponins as the primary bioactive constituents of Fuzi. Among these, benzoylaconine, a pivotal active compound, demonstrates notable pharmacological properties including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective effects. In recent years, benzoylaconine has garnered significant attention in basic research on heart diseases, emerging as a focal point of investigation. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the pharmacological effects of benzoylaconine, alongside an overview of advancements in metabolic characterization. The objective is to furnish valuable insights that can serve as a cornerstone for further exploration, utilization, and advancement of benzoylaconine in pharmacological research.

Dynamic Release from Acetalated Dextran Nanoparticles for Precision Therapy of Inflammation

Polymer-based nanoparticles (NPs) that react to altered physiological characteristics have the potential to enhance the delivery of therapeutics to a specific area. These materials can utilize biochemical triggers, such as low pH, which is prone to happen locally in an inflammatory microenvironment due to increased cellular activity. This reduced pH is neutralized when inflammation subsides. For precise delivery of therapeutics to match this dynamic reaction, drug delivery systems (DDS) need to not only release the drug (ON) but also stop the release (OFF) autonomously. In this study, we use a systematic approach to optimize the composition of acetalated dextran (AcDex) NPs to start (ON) and stop (OFF) releasing model cargo, depending on local pH changes. By mixing ratios of AcDex polymers (mixed NPs), we achieved a highly sensitive material that was able to rapidly release cargo when going from pH 7.4 to pH 6.0. At the same time, the mix also offered a stable composition that enabled a rapid ON/OFF/ON/OFF switching within this narrow pH range in only 90 min. These mixed NPs were also sensitive to biological pH changes, with increased release in the presence of inflammatory cells compared to healthy cells. Such precise and controllable characteristics of a DDS position mixed NPs as a potential treatment platform to inhibit disease flare-ups, reducing both systemic and local side effects to offer a superior treatment option for inflammation compared to conventional systems.

Current Immunotherapy Strategies for Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Immunoengineering and Delivery Systems

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease accompanied by persistent multiarticular synovitis and cartilage degradation. The present clinical treatments are limited to disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and aims to relieve pain and control the inflammation of RA. Despite considerable advances in the research of RA, the employment of current clinical procedure is enormous, hindered by systemic side effect, frequent administration, tolerance from long-lasting administration, and high costs. Emerging immunoengineering-based strategies, such as multiple immune-active nanotechnologies via mechanism-based immunology approaches, have been developed to improve specific targeting and to reduce adverse reactions for RA treatments. Here, we review recent studies in immunoengineering for the treatment of RA. The prospect of future immunoengineering treatment for RA has also been discussed.

Stem cell-like memory T cells: Role in viral infections and autoimmunity

Stem cell-like memory T (T_SCM) cells possess stem cell properties including multipotency and self-renewal and are being recognized as emerging players in various human diseases. Advanced technologies such as multiparametric flowcytometry and single cell sequencing have enabled their identification and molecular characterization. In case of chronic viral diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus-1, CD4+ T_SCM cells, serve as major reservoirs of the latent virus. However, during immune activation and functional exhaustion of effector T cells, these cells also possess the potential to replenish the pool of functional effector cells to curtail the infection. More recently, these cells are speculated to play important role in protective immunity following acute viral infections such as coronavirus disease 2019 and might be amenable for therapeutics by ex vivo expansion. Similarly, studies are also investigating their pathological role in driving autoimmune responses. However, there are several gaps in the understanding of the role of T_SCM cells in viral and autoimmune diseases to make them potential therapeutic targets. In this minireview, we have attempted an updated compilation of the dyadic role of these complex T_SCM cells during such human diseases along with their biology and transcriptional programs.

The San-Qi-Xue-Shang-Ning formula protects against ulcerative colitis by restoring the homeostasis of gut immunity and microbiota

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality due to repetitive remissions and relapses, and many severe complications, including colitis-associated cancer (CAC). The San-Qi-Xue-Shang-Ning (SQ) formula has been utilized in clinical practice to treat gut diseases, but its pharmacological evidence is limited and awaits elucidation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Here, we elucidated the molecular mechanisms of the SQ formula.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Its therapeutic value in combating UC and CAC was predicted from network pharmacology and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Experimental colitis models were established by feeding dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to C57BL/6N mice for 7 days, and they were subjected to the SQ formula for 14 days. High-throughput technologies and biochemical investigations were executed to corroborate the anti-colitis effect.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology and WGCNA demonstrated that the targets of the SQ formula were associated with interleukin-17 (IL-17), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), IL-1b and peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathways, and correlated with the survival in patients with colorectal cancer. In mice with colitis, the SQ treatment hindered colitis progression in a dose-dependent manner, as evidenced by the rescued colon length and weight loss, improved colonic epithelial integrity, and abolished crypt loss. In addition to the suppressed serum IL-17, TNFα, and IL-1b levels, the SQ-treated colitis mice exhibited decreased colonic protein abundance of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1 α), PPARα, and Caspase3 (Casp3) with an increased PPARγ expression. Concurrently, the high dose of SQ promoted the alternative activation of peritoneal macrophages by increasing Arg1 and inhibiting iNOS2, thereby facilitating the migration of NCM460 cells and controlling TNF-induced reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis in intestinal organoids. In colitis-accompanied dysbiosis, the SQ formula reversed the decreased microbiota diversity indexes and restored the microbiome profile in the murine colitis models.

CONCLUSION

The SQ formula is a potent anti-colitis drug that facilitates inflammation resolution and restores gut microbiota homeostasis.

Reprogrammed siTNFα/neutrophil cytopharmaceuticals targeting inflamed joints for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by severe synovial inflammation and cartilage damage. Despite great progress in RA therapy, there still lacks the drugs to completely cure RA patients. Herein, we propose a reprogrammed neutrophil cytopharmaceuticals loading with TNFα-targeting-siRNA (siTNFα) as an alternative anti-inflammatory approach for RA treatment. The loaded siTNFα act as not only the gene therapeutics to inhibit TNFα production by macrophages in inflamed synovium, but also the editors to reprogram neutrophils to anti-inflammatory phenotypes. Leveraging the active tendency of neutrophils to inflammation, the reprogrammed siTNFα/neutrophil cytopharmaceuticals (siTNFα/TP/NEs) can rapidly migrate to the inflamed synovium, transfer the loaded siTNFα to macrophages followed by the significant reduction of TNFα expression, and circumvent the pro-inflammatory activity of neutrophils, thus leading to the alleviated synovial inflammation and improved cartilage protection. Our work provides a promising cytopharmaceutical for RA treatment, and puts forward a living neutrophil-based gene delivery platform.

Wutou decoction attenuates the synovial inflammation of collagen-induced arthritis rats via regulating macrophage M1/M2 type polarization

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Thousands of years of clinical practice in the treatment of joint-related diseases support the efficacy and safety of Wutou decoction (WTD). Nevertheless, the lack of pharmacological evidence and unclear mechanisms make it difficult for WTD to become a recognized complementary therapy for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the effect of WTD against synovial inflammation in RA and whether this effect depends on the regulation of macrophage polarization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were used to establish the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model. WTD with low and high doses was administered for 45 days. RAW264.7 cells were stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or interleukin (IL)-4 to polarize M1 and M2 macrophages, which were pre-treated with WTD extract for 4 h. The anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of WTD were studied using arthritis score, histopathological staining, immunostaining, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The polarization state of RAW264.7 cells and related pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines was detected by ELISA, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to investigate the effect of WTD on nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ (PPARγ) activation both in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

WTD significantly reduced the arthritis score and the pathological damage of the knee joint and decreased the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), IL-6 in serum, TNF-α, IL-1β, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP3) in the knee synovium. WTD inhibited M1 type polarization and promoted M2 type polarization, both in vitro and in vivo, and reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines while increasing the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Experiments showed that WTD inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κB and downstream p38 in the synovium of CIA rats and LPS-induced M1 type polarized RAW264.7 cells. In addition, PPARγ expression in the synovium of CIA rats was mainly located in the cytoplasm, and WTD treatment increased the nuclear translocation of PPARγ, which was further verified in RAW264.7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

NF-κB and PPARγ regulating M1 and M2 macrophage polarization and subsequent secretion of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are the underlying mechanisms of WTD that ameliorate RA synovial inflammation.

Emerging concepts in designing next-generation multifunctional nanomedicine for cancer treatment

Nanotherapy has emerged as an improved anticancer therapeutic strategy to circumvent the harmful side effects of chemotherapy. It has been proven to be beneficial to offer multiple advantages, including their capacity to carry different therapeutic agents, longer circulation time and increased therapeutic index with reduced toxicity. Over time, nanotherapy evolved in terms of their designing strategies like geometry, size, composition or chemistry to circumvent the biological barriers. Multifunctional nanoscale materials are widely used as molecular transporter for delivering therapeutics and imaging agents. Nanomedicine involving multi-component chemotherapeutic drug-based combination therapy has been found to be an improved promising approach to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment. Next-generation nanomedicine has also utilized and combined immunotherapy to increase its therapeutic efficacy. It helps in targeting tumor immune response sparing the healthy systemic immune function. In this review, we have summarized the progress of nanotechnology in terms of nanoparticle designing and targeting cancer. We have also discussed its further applications in combination therapy and cancer immunotherapy. Integrating patient-specific proteomics and biomarker based information and harnessing clinically safe nanotechnology, the development of precision nanomedicine could revolutionize the effective cancer therapy.

Anti-rheumatic, and analgesic effects by the parent tuberous roots of Aconitum jaluense in adjuvant induced arthritis rats

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to test the anti-rheumatic effects of A. jaluense tubers in acute and chronic arthritis rats, and to assign its ingredients through UHPLC-TOF/MS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subcutaneous injection of carrageenan for acute arthritis and complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) for chronic arthritis was carried out in the hind paw of SD rats. The paw volume was measured by a plethysmometer thermal hyperalgesia was tested using a thermal plantar tester, and mechanical hyperalgesia was evaluated by ankle flexion evoked vocalizations. The expression of c-Fos in the brain hippocampus was measured with the avidin-biotin-peroxidase technique. The ingredients were assigned by UHPLC-TOF/MS, chromatography was performed by UHPLC system with DAD detector and BEH C₁₈ column, and spectroscopy was conducted by ESI-MS system.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The 80% ethanoic extract of A. jaluense tubers showed an acute anti-inflammatory effect by suppressing the edema volume in the hind paw of carrageenan-stimulated rats. In addition, A. jaluense tubers exerted an anti-rheumatic activity by reducing the secondary swelling volume from an immunological reaction in the left hind paw of CFA-induced chronic arthritis rats. Additionally, oral treatment with the 80% ethanoic extract -showed potent analgesic effects in the arthritis rats by recovering the paw withdrawal latency stimulated by the thermal hyperalgesia and by reducing the vocalization scores evoked by ankle flexion on both hind paws. Moreover, its treatment also indicated an anti-psychiatric effect by controlling the c-Fos protein expression of the brain hippocampus in CFA-stimulated arthritis rats. These results suggested that these therapeutic effects were exhibited by less toxic mono-esterified diterpenoid alkaloids (MDAs), and nontoxic non-esterified diterpenoid alkaloids (NDAs).

CONCLUSION

A. jaluense tubers may act as viable therapeutic or preventive candidates for acute and chronic arthritis, particularly, for immune-inflammatory rheumatoid arthritis to suppress the pain and psychiatric condition.

Bovine serum albumin-based biomimetic gene complexes with specificity facilitate rapid re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis

Re-endothelialization is a critical problem to inhibit postoperative restenosis, and gene delivery exhibits great potential in rapid endothelialization. Unfortunately, the therapeutic effect is enormously limited by inefficient specificity, poor biocompatibility and in vivo stability owing largely to the complicated in vivo environment. Herein, we developed a series of platelet membrane (PM) cloaked gene complexes based on natural bovine serum albumin (BSA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI). The gene complexes aimed to accelerate re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis via pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 (VEGF) plasmid delivery. Based on BSA and PM coating, these gene complexes exhibited good biocompatibility, stability with serum and robust homing to endothelium-injured site inherited from platelets. Besides, they enhanced the expression of VEGF protein by their high internalization and nucleus accumulation efficiency, and also substantially promoted migration and proliferation of vascular endothelial cells. The biological properties were further optimized via altering PEI and PM content. Finally, rapid recovery of endothelium in a carotid artery injured mouse model (79% re-endothelialization compared with model group) was achieved through two weeks' treatment by the PM cloaked gene complexes. High level of expressed VEGF in vivo was also realized by the gene complexes. Moreover, neointimal hyperplasia (IH) was significantly inhibited by the gene complexes according to in vivo study. The results verified the great potential of the PM cloaked gene complexes in re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Rapid re-endothelialization is a major challenge to inhibit postoperative restenosis. Herein, a series of biodegradable and biocompatible platelet membrane (PM) cloaked gene complexes were designed to accelerate re-endothelialization for anti-restenosis via pcDNA3.1-VEGF165 (VEGF) plasmid delivery. The PM cloaked gene complexes provided high VEGF expression in vascular endothelial cells (VECs), rapid migration and proliferation of VECs and robust homing to endothelium-injured site. In a carotid artery injured mouse model, PM cloaked gene complexes significantly promoted VEGF expression in vivo, accelerated re-endothelialization and inhibited neointimal hyperplasia due to their good biocompatibility and superior specificity. Overall, the optimized PM cloaked gene complexes overcomes multiple obstacles in gene delivery for re-endothelialization and can be a promising candidate for gene delivery and therapy of postoperative restenosis.

WTD Attenuating Rheumatoid Arthritis via Suppressing Angiogenesis and Modulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Pathway

Background: Wutou Decoction (WTD), as a classic prescription, has been generally used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for two thousand years in China. However, the potential protective effects of WTD on rheumatoid arthritis and its possible mechanism have rarely been reported.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to explore the possible mechanism of WTD against RA and a promising alternative candidate for RA therapy.

Methods: A model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) was constructed in rats to assess the therapeutic effects of WTD. Histopathological staining, immunofluorescence, and western blotting of synovial sections were conducted to detect the antiangiogenic effects of WTD. Then, cell viability assays, flow cytometry, scratch healing assays, and invasion assays were conducted to explore the effects of WTD on MH7A human fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS) cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion in vitro. The ability of WTD to induce blood vessel formation after MH7A cell and human umbilical vein endothelial cell line (HUVEC) coculture with WTD intervention was detected by a tube formation assay. The mechanisms of WTD were screened by network pharmacology and confirmed by in vivo and in vitro experiments.

Results: WTD ameliorated the symptoms and synovial pannus hyperplasia of CIA rats. Treatment with WTD inhibited MH7A cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and promoted MH7A apoptosis. WTD could inhibit MH7A cell expression of proangiogenic factors, including VEGF and ANGI, to induce HUVEC tube formation. Furthermore, the PI3K-AKT-mTOR-HIF-1α pathway was enriched as a potential target of WTD for the treatment of RA through network pharmacology enrichment analysis. Finally, it was confirmed in vitro and in vivo that WTD inhibits angiogenesis in RA by interrupting the PI3K-AKT-mTOR-HIF-1α pathway.

Conclusion: WTD can inhibit synovial hyperplasia and angiogenesis, presumably by inhibiting the migration and invasion of MH7A cells and blocking the production of proangiogenic effectors in MH7A cells. The possible underlying mechanism by which WTD ameliorates angiogenesis in RA is the PI3K-AKT-mTOR-HIF-1α pathway.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Aconiti Radix Cocta Improves Rheumatoid Arthritis via Suppressing COX-1 and COX-2

According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Aconiti Radix Cocta (AC) is clinically employed to expel wind, remove dampness, and relieve pain. We evaluated the antirheumatoid arthritis (RA) activities and underlying mechanisms of AC. The chemical constituents of AC were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using three reference compounds (benzoylaconitine, benzoylmesaconine, and benzoylhypacoitine). The anti-RA effects of AC were evaluated in adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats by hind paw volume and histopathological analysis. The effects of AC on inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-17A) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The regulation of cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and/or COX-2) was determined by Western blot and real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analyses. AC significantly reduced paw swelling, attenuated the inflammation and bone destruction in joint tissues, and reduced IL-1β and IL-17A in the serum. Moreover, AC downregulated the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 in the synovial tissues. We also identified that AC possesses significant anti-RA activities on AIA, which may be ascribed to the regulation of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-17, as well as to the inhibition of arachidonic acid signaling pathways. Our findings provide theoretical support for AC as an effective nature-derived therapeutic agent for RA treatment.

Nanomaterials Manipulate Macrophages for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive, and systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease, characterized by synovial inflammation, synovial lining hyperplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration, autoantibody production, and cartilage/bone destruction. Macrophages are crucial effector cells in the pathological process of RA, which can interact with T, B, and fibroblast-like synovial cells to produce large amounts of cytokines, chemokines, digestive enzymes, prostaglandins, and reactive oxygen species to accelerate bone destruction. Therefore, the use of nanomaterials to target macrophages has far-reaching therapeutic implications for RA. A number of limitations exist in the current clinical therapy for patients with RA, including severe side effects and poor selectivity, as well as the need for frequent administration of therapeutic agents and high doses of medication. These challenges have encouraged the development of targeting drug delivery systems and their application in the treatment of RA. Recently, obvious therapeutic effects on RA were observed following the use of various types of nanomaterials to manipulate macrophages through intravenous injection (active or passive targeting), oral administration, percutaneous absorption, intraperitoneal injection, and intra-articular injection, which offers several advantages, such as high-precision targeting of the macrophages and synovial tissue of the joint. In this review, the mechanisms involved in the manipulation of macrophages by nanomaterials are analyzed, and the prospect of clinical application is also discussed. The objective of this article was to provide a reference for the ongoing research concerning the treatment of RA based on the targeting of macrophages.

Nanomedicine Strategies for Anti-Inflammatory Treatment of Noninfectious Arthritis

Noninfectious arthritis (NIA) comprises a class of chronic and progressive inflammatory disorders that require early-stage management to prevent disease progression. The most common forms include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and gouty arthritis. Current treatments involve nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs and glucocorticoids to alleviate clinical symptoms, although regular use of these can result in a high risk of chronic kidney disease and heart failure, as well as severe adverse gastrointestinal effects. Nanomedicine offers unique opportunities to address these challenges and improve therapeutic efficacy due to its ability to deliver therapeutics locally in a sustained manner, thus extending the half-life, improving bioavailability, and reducing the side effects of these agents. This review includes a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms of various treatment options for NIA and highlights recent progress and emerging strategies in treating NIA with nanomedicine platforms, particularly related to long-term biosafety and nonspecific targeting in designing nanomedicine delivery systems.

Natural Plant Extracts and Compounds for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Natural plant extracts and compounds (NPECs), which originate from herbs or plants, have been used in the clinical treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for many years. Over the years, many scientists have carried out a series of studies on the treatment of RA by NPEC. They found a high quantity of active NPECs with broad application prospects. In view of various complex functions of these NPECs, exploring their potential as medicines for RA treatment will be beneficial for RA patients. Thus, to help advance the development of high-quality NPECs for RA, we herein aimed to review the research progress of NPECs in the treatment of RA in recent years. Our findings showed that, from the pharmacological perspective, natural plant extracts or mixed herbal compounds effectively regulate the immune system to alleviate RA by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further, individualized medication can be applied according to each patient's physical condition. However, the pathogenesis of RA and its immune mechanism has not been fully understood and requires further studies.

Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Anti-Inflammatory Agents and Their Delivery Nanosystems

Inflammatory diseases, whether caused by excessive stress on certain tissues/parts of the body or arising from infections accompanying autoimmune or secondary diseases, have become a problem, especially in the Western world today. Whether these are inflammations of visceral organs, joints, bones, or the like, they are always a physiological reaction of the body, which always tries to eradicate noxious agents and restore tissue homeostasis. Unfortunately, this often results in damage, often irreversible, to the affected tissues. Nevertheless, these inflammatory reactions of the body are the results of excessive stress, strain, and the generally unhealthy environment, in which the people of Western civilization live. The pathophysiology and pathobiochemistry of inflammatory/autoimmune processes are being studied in deep detail, and pharmaceutical companies are constantly developing new drugs that modulate/suppress inflammatory responses and endogenous pro-inflammatory agents. In addition to new specifically targeted drugs for a variety of pro-inflammatory agents, a strategy can be found for the use of older drugs, which are formulated into special nanodrug delivery systems with targeted distribution and often modified release. This contribution summarizes the current state of research and development of nanoformulated anti-inflammatory agents from both conventional drug classes and experimental drugs or dietary supplements used to alleviate inflammatory reactions.

Stem cell-like memory T cells: A perspective from the dark side

Much attention has been paid to a newly discovered subset of memory T (T_M) cells-stem cell-like memory T (T_SCM) cells for their high self-renewal ability, multi-differentiation potential and long-term effector function in adoptive therapy against tumors. Despite their application in cancer therapy, an excess of T_SCM cells also contributes to the persistence of autoimmune diseases for their immune memory and HIV infection as a long-lived HIV reservoir. Signaling pathways Wnt, AMPK/mTOR and NF-κB are key determinants for T_M cell generation, maintenance and proinflammatory effect. In this review, we focus on the phenotypic and functional characteristics of T_SCM cells and discuss their role in autoimmune diseases and HIV-1 chronic infection. Also, we explore the potential mechanism and signaling pathways involved in immune memory and look into the future therapy strategies of targeting long-lived T_M cells to suppress pathogenic immune memory.