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Nicolaï MPJ, Debruyn G, Soenens M, Shawkey MD, D’Alba L. Nanoscale millefeuilles produce iridescent bill ornaments in birds. PNAS Nexus 2024; 3:pgae138. [PMID: 38638835 PMCID: PMC11026107 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Colors are well studied in bird plumage but not in other integumentary structures. In particular, iridescent colors from structures other than plumage are undescribed in birds. Here, we show that a multilayer of keratin and lipids is sufficient to produce the iridescent bill of Spermophaga haematina. Furthermore, that the male bill is presented to the female under different angles during display provides support for the hypothesis that iridescence evolved in response to sexual selection. This is the first report of an iridescent bill, and only the second instance of iridescence in birds in which melanosomes are not involved. Furthermore, an investigation of museum specimens of an additional 98 species, showed that this evolved once, possibly twice. These results are promising, as they suggest that birds utilize a wider array of physical phenomena to produce coloration and should further stimulate research on nonplumage integumentary colors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël P J Nicolaï
- Department of Biology, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
- Department of Recent Vertebrates, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Vautierstraat 29, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Gerben Debruyn
- Department of Biology, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Mieke Soenens
- Department of Biology, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Matthew D Shawkey
- Department of Biology, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Liliana D’Alba
- Department of Biology, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands
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2
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Bauernfeind V, Ronikier A, Ronikier M, Kozlowski G, Steiner U, Wilts BD. Thin film structural color is widespread in slime molds (Myxomycetes, Amoebozoa). Opt Express 2024; 32:5429-5443. [PMID: 38439270 DOI: 10.1364/oe.511875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Brilliant colors in nature arise from the interference of light with periodic nanostructures resulting in structural color. While such biological photonic structures have long attracted interest in insects and plants, they are little known in other groups of organisms. Unexpected in the kingdom of Amoebozoa, which assembles unicellular organisms, structural colors were observed in myxomycetes, an evolutionary group of amoebae forming macroscopic, fungal-like structures. Previous work related the sparkling appearance of Diachea leucopodia to thin film interference. Using optical and ultrastructural characterization, we here investigated the occurrence of structural color across 22 species representing two major evolutionary clades of myxomycetes including 14 genera. All investigated species showed thin film interference at the peridium, producing colors with hues distributed throughout the visible range that were altered by pigmentary absorption. A white reflective layer of densely packed calcium-rich shells is observed in a compound peridium in Metatrichia vesparium, whose formation and function are still unknown. These results raise interesting questions on the biological relevance of thin film structural colors in myxomycetes, suggesting they may be a by-product of their reproductive cycle.
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Middleton R, Tunstad SA, Knapp A, Winters S, McCallum S, Whitney H. Self-assembled, disordered structural color from fruit wax bloom. Sci Adv 2024; 10:eadk4219. [PMID: 38324684 PMCID: PMC10849586 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk4219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Many visually guided frugivores have eyes highly adapted for blue sensitivity, which makes it perhaps surprising that blue pigmented fruits are not more common. However, some fruits are blue even though they do not contain blue pigments. We investigate dark pigmented fruits with wax blooms, like blueberries, plums, and juniper cones, and find that a structural color mechanism is responsible for their appearance. The chromatic blue-ultraviolet reflectance arises from the interaction of the randomly arranged nonspherical scatterers with light. We reproduce the structural color in the laboratory by recrystallizing wax bloom, allowing it to self-assemble to produce the blue appearance. We demonstrate that blue fruits and structurally colored fruits are not constrained to those with blue subcuticular structure or pigment. Further, convergent optical properties appear across a wide phylogenetic range despite diverse morphologies. Epicuticular waxes are elements of the future bioengineering toolbox as sustainable and biocompatible, self-assembling, self-cleaning, and self-repairing optical biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rox Middleton
- University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | | | | | - Sandra Winters
- University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Sinnott-Armstrong MA, Middleton R, Ogawa Y, Jacucci G, Moyroud E, Glover BJ, Rudall PJ, Vignolini S, Donoghue MJ. Multiple origins of lipid-based structural colors contribute to a gradient of fruit colors in Viburnum (Adoxaceae). New Phytol 2023; 237:643-655. [PMID: 36229924 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Structural color is poorly known in plants relative to animals. In fruits, only a handful of cases have been described, including in Viburnum tinus where the blue color results from a disordered multilayered reflector made of lipid droplets. Here, we examine the broader evolutionary context of fruit structural color across the genus Viburnum. We obtained fresh and herbarium fruit material from 30 Viburnum species spanning the phylogeny and used transmission electron microscopy, optical simulations, and ancestral state reconstruction to identify the presence/absence of photonic structures in each species, understand the mechanism producing structural color in newly identified species, relate the development of cell wall structure to reflectance in Viburnum dentatum, and describe the evolution of cell wall architecture across Viburnum. We identify at least two (possibly three) origins of blue fruit color in Viburnum in species which produce large photonic structures made of lipid droplets embedded in the cell wall and which reflect blue light. Examining the full spectrum of mechanisms producing color in pl, including structural color as well as pigments, will yield further insights into the diversity, ecology, and evolution of fruit color.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda A Sinnott-Armstrong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, PO Box 208106, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Rox Middleton
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Av, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Yu Ogawa
- CERMAV, CNRS, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Gianni Jacucci
- UMR 8552, Laboratoire Kastler Brossel, Collège de France, Sorbonne Université, Ecole Normale Supérieure-Paris Sciences et Lettres Research University, Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, 24 rue Lhomond, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Edwige Moyroud
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge, CB2 ILR, UK
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Beverley J Glover
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UK
| | | | - Silvia Vignolini
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Michael J Donoghue
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, PO Box 208106, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
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Nevo O, Valenta K, Helman A, Ganzhorn JU, Ayasse M. Fruit scent as an honest signal for fruit quality. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:139. [PMID: 36451093 PMCID: PMC9710009 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-02064-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fleshy fruits evolved to be attractive to seed dispersers through various signals such as color and scent. Signals can evolve through different trajectories and have various degrees of reliability. The strongest substrate on which reliable signals can evolve is when there is an inherent link between signal and reward, rendering cheating costly or impossible. It was recently proposed that aliphatic esters in fruit scent may be predictive of sugar content due to their synthesis from products of sugar fermentation. We test this hypothesis on a case study of wild fig species (Ficus tiliifolia) from Madagascar, which relies on seed dispersal by lemurs. RESULTS We found a strong positive correlation between signal (esters) and reward (sugar). We also found that non-esters, including direct fermentation products, in fruit scent do not indicate sugar levels, which implies that this relationship is not simply a product of fruit maturation wherein more mature fruits emit more scent and contain more sugar. CONCLUSIONS While based on a single taxon, these results strongly support the hypothesis that a biochemical link between ester synthesis and sugar may render the ester fraction of fruit scent an honest signal for fruit quality, with consequences for animal sensory and feeding ecology, and the evolution of plants in the context of seed dispersal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Nevo
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany. .,Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany. .,Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Kim Valenta
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Annabella Helman
- grid.26009.3d0000 0004 1936 7961Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
| | - Jörg U. Ganzhorn
- grid.9026.d0000 0001 2287 2617Animal Ecology and Conservation, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Manfred Ayasse
- grid.6582.90000 0004 1936 9748Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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Wardley WP, Goessling JW, Lopez-Garcia M. Measuring Photonics in Photosynthesis: Combined Micro-Fourier Image Spectroscopy and Pulse Amplitude Modulated Chlorophyll Fluorimetry at the Micrometre-Scale. Biomimetics (Basel) 2022; 7:107. [PMID: 35997427 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics7030107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural photonic structures are common across the biological kingdoms, serving a diversity of functionalities. The study of implications of photonic structures in plants and other phototrophic organisms is still hampered by missing methodologies for determining in situ photonic properties, particularly in the context of constantly adapting photosynthetic systems controlled by acclimation mechanisms on the cellular scale. We describe an innovative approach to determining spatial and spectral photonic properties and photosynthesis activity, employing micro-Fourier Image Spectroscopy and Pulse Amplitude Modulated Chlorophyll Fluorimetry in a combined microscope setup. Using two examples from the photosynthetic realm, the dynamic Bragg-stack-like thylakoid structures of Begonia sp. and complex 2.5 D photonic crystal slabs from the diatom Coscinodiscus granii, we demonstrate how the setup can be used for measuring self-adapting photonic-photosynthetic systems and photonic properties on single-cell scales. We suggest that the setup is well-suited for the determination of photonic–photosynthetic systems in a diversity of organisms, facilitating the cellular, temporal, spectral and angular resolution of both light distribution and combined chlorophyll fluorescence determination. As the catalogue of photonic structure from photosynthetic organisms is rich and diverse in examples, a deepened study could inspire the design of novel optical- and light-harvesting technologies.
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Sinnott‐Armstrong MA, Ogawa Y, van de Kerkhof GT, Vignolini S, Smith SD. Convergent evolution of disordered lipidic structural colour in the fruits of Lantana strigocamara (syn. L. camara hybrid cultivar). New Phytol 2022; 235:898-906. [PMID: 35590489 PMCID: PMC9328138 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The majority of plant colours are produced by anthocyanin and carotenoid pigments, but colouration obtained by nanostructured materials (i.e. structural colours) is increasingly reported in plants. Here, we identify a multilayer photonic structure in the fruits of Lantana strigocamara and compare it with a similar structure in Viburnum tinus fruits. We used a combination of transmission electron microscopy (EM), serial EM tomography, scanning force microscopy and optical simulations to characterise the photonic structure in L. strigocamara. We also examine the development of the structure during maturation. We found that the structural colour derives from a disordered, multilayered reflector consisting of lipid droplets of c.105 nm that form a plate-like structure in 3D. This structure begins to form early in development and reflects blue wavelengths of light with increasing intensity over time as the structure develops. The materials used are likely to be lipid polymers. Lantana strigocamara is the second origin of a lipid-based photonic structure, convergently evolved with the structure in Viburnum tinus. Chemical differences between the lipids in L. strigocamara and those of V. tinus suggest a distinct evolutionary trajectory with implications for the signalling function of structural colours in fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda A. Sinnott‐Armstrong
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of Colorado‐BoulderBoulderCO80309USA
| | - Yu Ogawa
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAVGrenoble38000France
| | | | - Silvia Vignolini
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - Stacey D. Smith
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of Colorado‐BoulderBoulderCO80309USA
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8
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van de Kerkhof GT, Schertel L, Catòn L, Parton TG, Müller KH, Greer HF, Ingham CJ, Vignolini S. Polysaccharide metabolism regulates structural colour in bacterial colonies. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220181. [PMID: 35611622 PMCID: PMC9131120 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The brightest colours in nature often originate from the interaction of light with materials structured at the nanoscale. Different organisms produce such coloration with a wide variety of materials and architectures. In the case of bacterial colonies, structural colours stem for the periodic organization of the cells within the colony, and while considerable efforts have been spent on elucidating the mechanisms responsible for such coloration, the biochemical processes determining the development of this effect have not been explored. Here, we study the influence of nutrients on the organization of cells from the structurally coloured bacteria Flavobacterium strain IR1. By analysing the optical properties of the colonies grown with and without specific polysaccharides, we found that the highly ordered organization of the cells can be altered by the presence of fucoidans. Additionally, by comparing the organization of the wild-type strain with mutants grown in different nutrient conditions, we deduced that this regulation of cell ordering is linked to a specific region of the IR1 chromosome. This region encodes a mechanism for the uptake and metabolism of polysaccharides, including a polysaccharide utilization locus (PUL operon) that appears specific to fucoidan, providing new insight into the biochemical pathways regulating structural colour in bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea T. van de Kerkhof
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Lukas Schertel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Laura Catòn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
- Hoekmine BV, Room 1.091 (iLab), Kenniscentrum Technologie en Innovatie, Hogeschool Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 7, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas G. Parton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Karin H. Müller
- Cambridge Advanced Imaging Centre, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, UK
| | - Heather F. Greer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Colin J. Ingham
- Hoekmine BV, Room 1.091 (iLab), Kenniscentrum Technologie en Innovatie, Hogeschool Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 7, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Silvia Vignolini
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
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Abstract
Plant epidermis are multifunctional surfaces that directly affect how plants interact with animals or microorganisms and influence their ability to harvest or protect from abiotic factors. To do this, plants rely on minuscule structures that confer remarkable properties to their outer layer. These microscopic features emerge from the hierarchical organization of epidermal cells with various shapes and dimensions combined with different elaborations of the cuticle, a protective film that covers plant surfaces. Understanding the properties and functions of those tridimensional elements as well as disentangling the mechanisms that control their formation and spatial distribution warrant a multidisciplinary approach. Here we show how interdisciplinary efforts of coupling modern tools of experimental biology, physics, and chemistry with advanced computational modeling and state-of-the art microscopy are yielding broad new insights into the seemingly arcane patterning processes that sculpt the outer layer of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Riglet
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Bateman Street, CB2 1LR, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Stefano Gatti
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Bateman Street, CB2 1LR, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Edwige Moyroud
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Bateman Street, CB2 1LR, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Genetics, Downing Site, CB2 3EJ, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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10
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Lei B, Cui J, Newman C, Buesching CD, Xie Z, Macdonald DW, Zhou Y. Seed dispersers shape the pulp nutrients of fleshy-fruited plants. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210817. [PMID: 34157866 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The dispersal-syndrome hypothesis posits that fruit traits are a product of selection by frugivores. Although criticized as adaptationist, recent studies have suggested that traits such as fruit or seed size, colour and odour exhibit signatures that imply selection by animal mutualists. These traits imply nutritional rewards (e.g. lipid, carbohydrate), attracting frugivores; however, this remains incompletely resolved. Here, we investigated whether fruit nutrients (lipid, sugar, protein, vitamin C, water content) moderate the co-adaptation of key disperser-group mutualisms. Multivariate techniques revealed that fruit nutrients assembled non-randomly and grouped according to key dispersal modes. Bird-dispersed fruits were richer in lipids than mammal-dispersed fruits. Mixed-dispersed fruits had significantly higher vitamin C than did mammal- or bird-dispersed fruits separately. Sugar and water content were consistently high irrespective of dispersal modes, suggesting that these traits appeal to both avian and mammalian frugivores to match high-energy requirements. Similarly, protein content was low irrespective of dispersal modes, corroborating that birds and mammals avoid protein-rich fruits, which are often associated with toxic levels of nitrogenous secondary compounds. Our results provide substantial over-arching evidence that seed disperser assemblages co-exert fundamental selection pressures on fruit nutrient trait adaptation, with broad implications for structuring fruit-frugivore mutualism and maintaining fruit trait diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyu Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China.,Hubei International Scientific and Technological Center of Ecological Conservation and Management in the Three Gorges Area, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 43002, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Jifa Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China.,Hubei International Scientific and Technological Center of Ecological Conservation and Management in the Three Gorges Area, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 43002, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Chris Newman
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney OX13 5QL, UK
| | - Christina D Buesching
- Department of Biology, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science, University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Zongqiang Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - David W Macdonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney OX13 5QL, UK
| | - Youbing Zhou
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Center of Ecological Conservation and Management in the Three Gorges Area, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 43002, People's Republic of China
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11
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Abstract
This article focuses on the molecular and hormonal mechanisms underlying the control of fleshy fruit ripening and quality. Recent research on tomato shows that ethylene, acting through transcription factors, is responsible for the initiation of tomato ripening. Several other hormones, including abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA) and brassinosteroids (BR), promote ripening by upregulating ethylene biosynthesis genes in different fruits. Changes to histone marks and DNA methylation are associated with the activation of ripening genes and are necessary for ripening initiation. Light, detected by different photoreceptors and operating through ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5(HY5), also modulates ripening. Re-evaluation of the roles of 'master regulators' indicates that MADS-RIN, NAC-NOR, Nor-like1 and other MADS and NAC genes, together with ethylene, promote the full expression of genes required for further ethylene synthesis and change in colour, flavour, texture and progression of ripening. Several different types of non-coding RNAs are involved in regulating expression of ripening genes, but further clarification of their diverse mechanisms of action is required. We discuss a model that integrates the main hormonal and genetic regulatory interactions governing the ripening of tomato fruit and consider variations in ripening regulatory circuits that operate in other fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Li
- College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China;
| | - Kunsong Chen
- College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China;
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Integrative Biology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Donald Grierson
- College of Agriculture & Biotechnology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China;
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Integrative Biology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Plant and Crop Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, Sutton Bonington Campus, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
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12
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Brodie J, Ingham CJ, Vignolini S. Does Structural Color Exist in True Fungi? J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:141. [PMID: 33669274 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Structural color occurs by the interaction of light with regular structures and so generates colors by completely different optical mechanisms to dyes and pigments. Structural color is found throughout the tree of life but has not, to date, been reported in the fungi. Here we give an overview of structural color across the tree of life and provide a brief guide aimed at stimulating the search for this phenomenon in fungi.
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13
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Sinnott-Armstrong M, Vignolini S, Ogawa Y. Protocol for Extraction and Electron Microscopy Visualization of Lipids in Viburnum tinus Fruit Using Cryo-Ultramicrotomy. STAR Protoc 2020; 1:100201. [PMID: 33377095 PMCID: PMC7757564 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2020.100201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently reported that Viburnum tinus fruit generates its metallic blue color using globular lipid inclusions embedded in its epicarpal cell walls. This protocol describes steps to visualize the lipidic nature of the nanostructure using cryo-ultramicrotomy, chloroform extraction, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging. This method is useful to localize and characterize novel lipidic nanostructures embedded in both plant and animal tissues at the TEM resolution. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Middleton et al. (2020). A protocol for visualizing lipid nanostructures in Viburnum tinus fruits is described Cryo-microtomy and chloroform extraction allow localizing lipids at nanometric scale The protocol is applicable to plants, yeasts, and fungi
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvia Vignolini
- Chemistry Department, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Yu Ogawa
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Cermav, 38000 Grenoble, France
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14
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15
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Wilts BD. Fruit Coloration: Attractive, Fatty Blue Colours? Curr Biol 2020; 30:R1078-R1080. [PMID: 33022238 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of visible colours as honest signals to attract seed-dispersers is a well-known property of fruits. While most of these colours are due to pigments, it has now been discovered that the evergreen Viburnum tinus shrubs display their edible and nutritious fruit with a blue structural colour based on lipid inclusions in the epidermal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bodo D Wilts
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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