Update on common nutritional disorders of captive reptiles

Demography, commonly recorded disorders and mortality in chelonia under UK primary veterinary care: A VetCompass study

Little information has been published on the recorded disorders of pet chelonia. This cohort study aimed to report on demography, commonly recorded disorders and mortality recorded in chelonia under UK primary veterinary care in 2019. Electronic health records on a random sample of chelonia in VetCompass during 2019 were reviewed to extract species, recorded disorder and mortality data. Of 2,040 chelonia reviewed, 1,923 (94.26%) were recorded as tortoises, 74 (3.63%) terrapins and 43 (2.11%) turtles. Of the 811 (42.17%) tortoises with species information recorded, the most common species were Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (311, 38.35%), Horsfield's tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii) (259, 31.94%) and Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises (154, 18.99%). The most commonly recorded disorders were beak abnormalities (16.72%), overgrown nails (11.47%) and shell abnormalities (9.80%). The most common recorded causes of death were "disorder undiagnosed" (44.55%), dog bite (5.45%) and anorexia (3.96%). Of 178 deaths with age recorded, the median age at death was 7.32 years (IQR 2.50-15.14). Short temporal windows within the clinical records and often limited clinical workups were a frequent limitation to the precision of the recorded disorder terms. This is the largest study of chelonia to date. It has highlighted the most commonly recorded disorders of chelonia of which many are often linked to husbandry.

Pathology of "double scale" skin defect in farmed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) and the possible association with hepatic fibrosis

"Double scale" is a poorly characterized skin defect of crocodilians that drastically reduces the economic value of crocodilian skin. This study investigated the morphology and pathogenesis of double scale in a ranching farm of American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). We compared the histopathology of skin and selected organs (liver, lung, kidney, heart, spleen, intestine, and brain) of alligators with double scale against healthy control animals, together with serum and liver vitamin and mineral levels. Skin affected with double scale had statistically significant hyperkeratosis, epidermal atrophy, and increased basal cell degeneration compared with control alligators (P < .0001). Interestingly, all alligators with double scale had varying degrees of hepatic fibrosis. Feed analysis showed that alligators that had double scale and hepatic fibrosis had prolonged dietary exposure to high levels of vitamin A, iron, and copper. Serum analysis indicated that levels of zinc (p < .0001), copper (P < .05), and vitamin E (P < .002) were significantly lower in alligators with hepatic fibrosis and double scale compared with controls. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis of skin with double scale showed a marked reduction in immunolabeling with the zinc-binding protein metallothionein. These results suggest that zinc deficiency, in combination with other micronutrient anomalies, may play a role in the pathogenesis of double scale in alligators with liver fibrosis.

EVALUATION OF MORTALITY CAUSES AND PREVALENCE OF RENAL LESIONS IN ZOO-HOUSED CHAMELEONS: 2011-2022

Of the 202 species of Chamaeleonidae, 38.6% are globally threatened. Currently, nearly a thousand individual chameleons from 36 different species are kept in zoological institutions worldwide. The objectives of this study were to assess the main mortality causes of chameleons in zoological institutions, the prevalence of renal lesions at necropsy, and the environmental factors associated with renal lesions. An online survey was sent to 245 zoological institutions worldwide to collect information about species and sex distribution, necropsy results, and husbandry parameters. Necropsy reports of the last 10 yr were requested from participating institutions (n = 65) when available. Mortality causes were classified into three categories (open diagnosis, infectious, and noninfectious), and noninfectious causes were further subdivided into seven categories (renal, reproductive, myoarthroskeletal, digestive, ophthalmologic, denutrition/multisystemic, and neoplastic). The prevalence of renal lesions was recorded. Multiple linear regression models were used with the prevalence of renal diseases as the dependent variable, and exhibit minimum and maximum hygrometry; exhibit highest and coolest temperature; as well as minimum, mean, and maximum hygrometry of the geographical area as independent variables, combining all chameleon species with similar environmental requirements. Results were obtained for 14 species (n = 412 individuals). The main mortality causes were infectious (46.8%), noninfectious renal (11.4%), and noninfectious reproductive (10.7%) diseases, with all cases of fatal reproductive diseases reported in females. Of the individuals that underwent renal histopathology, 41.7% displayed renal lesions. There was a tendency towards higher renal lesion prevalence in zoos located in areas with lower mean hygrometry (P = 0.05). Further research studies about infectious, renal, and reproductive diseases of Chamaeleonidae are warranted.

Body condition scoring facilitates healthcare monitoring in Hermann's Tortoises (Testudo hermanni ssp.)

Clinical assessment of body condition is crucial in captive and free-ranging reptiles, since a large percentage of diseases result from inadequate nutrition. However, preventive health care is restricted by the lack of a practical method for the assessment in tortoises. Pre-existing evaluation systems based on weight and shell measurements are laborious and ignore the clinical presentation of the animal. The present study aimed to facilitate the assessment by establishing a body condition score. A total of 373 Hermann's Tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (n = 281 tortoises kept as pets in Germany and n = 92 tortoises originating from a free-ranging population (68) or a rearing station (24) in France) were examined and data (weight (g), carapace length (cm), width (cm), height (cm)) were recorded in a standard protocol between October 2020 and October 2021. A modified version of a body condition score for Mojave Desert Tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) (1 = cachectic, 3 = ideal, 5 = obese) was utilized and tested against pre-existing shell measurement systems (Jackson's ratio, body condition index, volume condition index, circumferential product). German captive tortoises were significantly heavier and larger than French specimens. In the Spearman's correlation matrix, the body condition score showed a statistically significant correlation with all measurement methods in the total population of captive tortoises (Testudo hermanni boettgeri), with a medium correlation strength, and a lack of correlation in free-ranging tortoises (Testudo hermanni hermanni). However, individual animal data suggested misleading results of mathematical equations in terms of body condition. Clinical evaluation of tortoises, including a body condition score, should be considered essential to provide good healthcare and should be an integral part of general examination.

An Update on Companion Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps) Nutrition

Evidence-based recommendations for the amount, type, and frequency of food items and supplements are lacking for bearded dragons. General recommendations based on ecological data, a few studies, and experts in the field are to: provide at least 50% high-fiber plant matter dusted in pure calcium and less than 50% adult and lower fat larval insects gut loaded with an 8% calcium diet and dusted with pure calcium, provide ultraviolet B lighting for vitamin D3 synthesis, provide multivitamins on a weekly basis, or monthly at minimum, provide a water dish large enough to soak and drink.

Reptile Dermatology

Reptiles are being presented more frequently to veterinarians because they increase in popularity. As with domestic pets, dermatologic conditions are common findings in captive reptiles and can be associated with husbandry and nutritional deficiencies, infectious diseases, and neoplasia. To have success with these cases, it is important to take a stepwise and strategic approach, starting with a thorough anamnesis and physical examination. From there, diagnostic tests should be pursued, with an understanding of the limitations of each diagnostic test. By understanding these limitations, the veterinary scientist can determine the best path to a diagnosis and treatment for the case.

Energy expenditure of red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) fed kibble diets with high levels of fibre, starch, or fat

Knowledge of energy requirements is necessary to optimise the nutritional management of animals. For tortoises, very little is known about their nutrient and energy requirements. Data on substrate oxidation and the implications of starch or fat intake on the energy metabolism are lacking. The present study compared the daily energy expenditures (DEE) of red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) that were fed three extruded diets: a control diet high in fibre and two test diets, one with high starch content and another with high fat content. A total of 18 tortoises (5.5 ± 1.18 kg) were used in a completely randomised design, with 6 animals per diet. After 14 months of experimental diet intake and 48 h of preliminary fasting, the animals were kept for 12 h in 70-l respiratory chambers. An open "push mode" system was used to determine the carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption levels for the subsequent calculations of DEE. The data were analysed with ANOVA, and the means were compared by using Tukey's test (p < 0.05). The body weights, chamber temperatures and food intakes of the tortoises were similar among the treatments (p > 0.05). There were no significant differences in oxygen consumption (21.7 ± 3.16 ml · kg^-1 · h^-1), carbon dioxide production (18.1 ± 1.96 ml · kg^-1 · h^-1), or DEE (9.7 ± 1.04 kJ · kg^-1 d^-1) between diets or sex (p > 0.05). The respiratory quotients (0.84 ± 0.11) were also similar among the diets (p > 0.05). The DEE of red footed tortoises did not differ after a long-term starch or fat intake.

Adaptive management in a conservation breeding program: Mimicking habitat complexities facilitates reproductive success in narrow-headed gartersnakes (Thamnophis rufipunctatus)

Mimicking natural parameters and complexities in zoo conservation breeding programs can facilitate natural physiological and behavioral traits, which in turn can inform more effective species reintroduction efforts. To curtail population declines of threatened narrow-headed gartersnakes (Thamnophis rufipunctatus), the Arizona Center for Nature Conservation/Phoenix Zoo partnered with a multiagency conservation working group to develop an ex situ propagation-for-release program. Initially, Zoo staff followed common snake husbandry protocols of manually inducing brumation (i.e., winter dormancy). Copulation was observed during the first few years, but no births resulted. Also, some older individuals developed post-brumation health abnormalities, prompting a strategic reassessment. To facilitate propagation and improve health, Zoo staff applied ecological knowledge of T. rufipunctatus and an adaptive management strategy to implement key parameters for success: sociality, refugia, breeding and foraging behaviors, and natural brumation. Zoo staff developed a large multisnake enclosure that mimicked natural ecological and habitat complexities including a hibernaculum to stimulate natural brumation. Gartersnakes were left mostly unimpeded to conduct natural behaviors across seasons in the enriched environment. We referenced change in body mass after ten brumation periods as a proxy for health. Under natural brumation, gartersnakes did not lose body mass, and this shift resulted in fully ex situ parturition events-the first for this imperiled species. We highlight the efficacy of adaptive management and incorporation of natural parameters and environmental complexities into conservation breeding programs. These actions can improve the health and success of animals under managed care-processes applicable to a range of taxa targeted for conservation translocations.

TOMOGRAPHIC ATTENUATION OF THE HEPATIC PARENCHYMA OF ADULT FREE-RANGING AND CAPTIVE BOAS (BOA CONSTRICTOR)

Improperly managed care conditions for reptiles can lead to clinical problems, including those of nutritional origin. A diagnostic tool to aid in the assessment of hepatic lipidosis is warranted. Evaluation of attenuation using quantitative computed tomography has a variety of indications in animals and permits the standardization of hepatic computed tomography (CT) reference values, aiding in the diagnosis of lipidosis. The objective of this paper was to estimate hepatic quantitative CT reference values for boas because of the lack of data in the literature for this species. CT scans were performed in 13 boas (Boa constrictor constrictor): 5 under managed care and 8 that were free ranging. Results show that the mean hepatic attenuation in the captive boa group was well below the mean for the free-ranging animals (P < 0.05) with respective values of 48.78 ± 6.57 and 61.76 ± 7.11 HU. These results suggest an influence of managed care on liver attenuation. These results were observed despite the lack of clinical or laboratory changes. This imaging technique is useful to detect early hepatic changes; however, clinical relevance is unknown at this point. Further studies and standardization of species-specific values for hepatic quantitative CT would contribute to better understanding of the physiologic, physiopathologic, environmental, and nutritional processes.

Evaluation of vitamin A gut loading in black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens)

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae are potentially an excellent source of calcium for insectivores; however, previous studies have identified that they lack appreciable amounts of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D₃ , and E). To make BSF larvae a more complete food item, fat-soluble vitamins should either be provided via gut loading or with a multivitamin dusting supplement. The purpose of this study is to identify factors associated with gut loading vitamin A into BSF larvae and to develop feeding recommendations for a more consistent gut-loading process. Factors that were addressed include the vitamin A concentration added to the diet, length of time given to gut load, moisture content of the diet, and density of larvae during feeding. Diets and larvae were analyzed for vitamin A concentration using high-performance liquid chromatography. Larval vitamin A concentrations increased in a nonlinear fashion with increasing dietary vitamin A. Length of time (F = 150.818, p < .001), moisture content of the diet (F = 41.436, p < .001), and larval density (F = 78.407, p < .001) were all found to be significant factors contributing to the larvae's gut-loading capacity. On the basis of our results and vitamin A recommendations from the National Resource Council for rats and poultry, gut-loading recommendations for BSF larvae when fed to insectivorous reptiles and amphibians are as follows: vitamin A concentration of diet between 16,000 and 20,000 mcg retinol equivalents/kg, gut-loading time period of 24 h, moisture content of the diet approximately 60%, and larval density between 0.1 and 1 larvae per each gram of moist substrate.

Geriatric Reptiles and Amphibians

Captive amphibians and reptiles may be extraordinarily long-lived pets, with some species able to reach ages of more than 150 years. Therefore, such longevity needs to be contemplated before purchasing an animal. Similar to traditional companion species, the health and husbandry requirements of herpetofauna change throughout the course of their lives, and modifications to how animals are kept need to take this into consideration. Regular examinations, including diagnostics, are invaluable in monitoring the health of senescent amphibians and reptiles and may aid in assessing quality of life.

Digestibility of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed to leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae have been marketed as an excellent choice for providing calcium to reptiles without the need of dusting or gut loading. However, previous studies have indicated that they have limited calcium digestibility and are deficient in fat soluble vitamins (A, D3, and E). In this feeding and digestibility trial, 24 adult male leopard geckos were fed one of three diets for 4 months: 1) whole, vitamin A gut loaded larvae; 2) needle pierced, vitamin A gut loaded larvae; or 3) whole, non-gut loaded larvae. Fecal output from the geckos was collected daily and apparent digestibility was calculated for dry matter, protein, fat, and minerals. There were no differences in digestibility coefficients among groups. Most nutrients were well digested by the leopard geckos when compared to previous studies, with the exception of calcium (digestibility co-efficient 43%), as the calcium-rich exoskeleton usually remained intact after passage through the GI tract. Biochemistry profiles revealed possible deficits occurring over time for calcium, sodium, and total protein. In regards to vitamin A digestibility, plasma and liver vitamin A concentrations were significantly higher in the supplemented groups (plasma- gut loaded groups: 33.38 ± 7.11 ng/ml, control group: 25.8 ± 6.72 ng/ml, t = 1.906, p = 0.04; liver- gut loaded groups: 28.67 ± 18.90 μg/g, control group: 14.13 ± 7.41 μg/g, t = 1.951, p = 0.03). While leopard geckos are able to digest most of the nutrients provided by BSF larvae, including those that have been gut loaded, more research needs to be performed to assess whether or not they provide adequate calcium in their non-supplemented form.

Body condition scoring (BCS) in corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) and comparison to pre-existing body condition index (BCI) for snakes

In the veterinary profession, the body condition score (BCS) plays an important role in the assessment of patients. It is a subjective, tactile method of evaluating body fat and muscle mass and is used in numerous species. Recognizing obesity (or the contrary, emaciation) is important for veterinarians treating reptiles and could be facilitated by a BCS. An existing form of body condition assessment already used is the body condition index (BCI), where the residuals from a regression of body mass on body length are calculated. Therefore, the goal of this study was to provide practitioners with a BCS system for corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) and to test it against the BCI. A total of 22 corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus), stationed at the "Auffangstation für Reptilien" in Munich (reptile rescue centre, RRC), were subject of this study. Each had the following measurements taken: body weight (BW), snout-tail tip length (STL), snout-vent length (SVL) and circumference in the middle (C). Manual palpation of spine, area between vertebral spinous and transverse process, ribs and neck of each snake was performed by three veterinarians and assigned to specific scores by each examiner. A BCS (mean of examiners' scores) was given to each snake according to manual palpation. The BCS system was chosen to be out of 5 in 0.5-point steps with 2.5 considered as ideal BCS. In the studied snakes, the BCS ranged from 1.5 to 3.5, with a median of 2.5. The median BW was 309 g (75-967 g), the median STL was 123 cm (79-153 cm), the median SVL was 104 cm (73-133 cm) and the median C was 7.5 cm (4.3-11 cm). BCS and BCI were positively correlated. A BCS includes a manual palpation of the animal and thus gives the examiner additional information to the objectively measured/calculated index.

Retrospective review of neoplasms of captive lizards in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

Neoplasia has historically been regarded as an unusual occurrence in reptiles. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of neoplasms in routine diagnostic samples submitted to a specialist exotic animal laboratory.

METHODS

Over a 10-year period, 690 lizard samples were submitted for histopathological or cytopathological examination by Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons specialists in Veterinary Pathology (Zoo and Wildlife). Records were reviewed retrospectively and non-neoplastic diagnoses excluded from further analysis.

RESULTS

158 neoplasms were diagnosed in 149 lizards, with 22.9% of submissions resulting in a diagnosis of neoplasia. The skin was the most commonly affected organ, and squamous cell carcinomas were the most common neoplasms identified (17.7% of all neoplastic diagnoses).Bearded dragons and panther chameleons had a statistically significant higher proportion of neoplasia diagnosis than the lizard population as a whole, and geckos had a statistically significantly lower proportion.Several neoplasms identified in this study have not been previously reported in lizards, including a testicular Sertoli cell tumour, testicular granulosa cell tumour, splenic haemangiosarcoma, gastric adenocarcinoma and basal cell carcinoma.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that the prevalence of neoplasia in captive lizards may be higher than previously reported, and that there is variation in prevalence between different lizard species and families. It is unclear whether these differences relate to genetic or management factors.

Hole-in-the-head disease in discus fish, Symphysodon (Heckel, 1840): Is it a consequence of a dietary Ca/P imbalance?

Hole-in-the-head (HITH) disease-affected fish develop characteristic lesions in the skin above sensory pores of the head and the trunk. This study investigated whether an unfavourable Ca/P ratio in the diet could provoke lesions consistent with HITH disease in discus fish Symphysodon (Heckel, 1840) as a comparable condition to secondary hyperparathyroidism of tetrapod species. Two groups of five fish were fed a plain beef heart diet (Ca/P of 0.03), whereas two other groups were kept on commercial discus feed (Ca/P of 2.73). Each feeding group was submitted to two different water hardness regimes (35.66-71.39 mg/L CaCO₃ and 124.94-196.33 mg/L CaCO₃ , respectively). All fish were observed for the development of the characteristic lesions for 16 weeks. At the end of the study, histological, bacteriological and parasitological examinations were conducted and plasma Ca, P and Mg values were determined. Diplomonad flagellates were detected in two fish. Isolated bacteria of all groups mostly belonged to Aeromonadales and Pseudomonadales. No significant difference of plasma mineral values between the groups was observed. Compared to the results of other authors, Ca stayed mainly in the range and P exceeded the reference values. Histological examinations did not indicate HITH disease, and no fish developed signs of the disease during the study. Clinical trial registration number GZ 68.205/0135-WF/V/36/2014.

Ultrasonographic anatomy of reproductive female leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

Captive leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) often present to the exotic clinic for gastrointestinal impactions, follicular stasis, or dystocia. To our knowledge, normal ultrasonographic anatomy of these lizards has not been described. The objectives of this prospective, anatomic, analytical study were to develop ultrasound techniques for this species and to describe the normal sonographic anatomy of the head, coelomic cavity, and tail. Eleven, healthy, female leopard geckos were included. A linear array 13-18 MHz transducer was used. Geckos were sedated and restrained in dorsal recumbency for coelomic structure examination and in ventral recumbency for head and tail examinations. Sagittal and transverse images were acquired and authors recorded qualitative and quantitative ultrasonographic characteristics of anatomic structures. The ventral surface of the lungs, liver, gallbladder, caudal vena cava, portal vein, ventral abdominal vein, aorta, ovarian follicles, fat bodies, tail, and brain were visualized in 10 of 11 individuals. In one individual, molt precluded ultrasonographic examination. The heart, kidneys, urinary bladder, spleen, and pancreas were not visualized. The digestive tract was observed in 10 individuals but was too small to be measured. Findings from the current study could be used as a reference for future studies of leopard geckos.

Freshwater turtle nutrition – a review of scientific and practical knowledge

Freshwater turtles are commonly kept in captivity as pets, bred in zoos for conservation programs, and commercially farmed for pet markets and human consumption, but their nutrition can be challenging. However, based on practical experience, two main strategies may be identified: the use of non-calculated raw diets and the use of balanced commercial feeds. Raw diets are based on fresh, frozen and dried components including invertebrates, fish, rodents and plant matter; they imitate the variety of foods that are accessible to turtles in the wild and are considered most useful when turtles are bred for reintroduction into their natural habitat as part of conservation programs. Granulated, pelleted or extruded commercial diets are frequently used for farmed and pet turtles; they contain animal- and plant-based materials supplemented with vitamin and mineral premixes and calculated to reach the nutrient levels assumed to be optimal for most species. Until more species-specific information on the nutritional requirements of freshwater turtles is available, the Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis), a commonly commercially farmed species for human consumption, may be used as a reference for other species in terms of suggested nutrient levels. Based on experimental data, the most important nutrients and their levels that should be included in turtle diets are crude protein (39.0-46.5%), crude fat (8.8%), Ca (5.7%), P (3.0%), methionine (1.03%), and cysteine (0.25%). The diet composition for freshwater turtles should be based on scientific knowledge and practical experience, so this paper aimed to present and discuss the available data on the nutrient requirements of turtles and the characteristics of the feed materials used in their nutrition.

A case report of intrarenal epidermoid cysts in a yellow-bellied slider (Trachemys scripta scripta)

A 7-year-old yellow-bellied slider exhibited anorexia, decreased activity, generalised wasting of skeletal muscles and oedema. Haematology examination revealed increased phosphorus and decreased calcium levels. During necropsy performed after spontaneous death, a focal nodular lesion containing tan amorphous material was found in the left kidney. Histopathology examination revealed multiple cystic lesions lined by a multilayered squamous, occasionally cuboidal, and containing keratin. Epithelial cells and keratin material were cytokeratin-positive. These findings confirmed a diagnosis of the most likely congenital intrarenal epidermoid cysts.

Evidence-Based Advances in Reptile Medicine

Evidence-based medicine allows veterinarians to practice high-quality medicine, because the basis for all decision making is quantitative, objective, and reproducible. Case reports and case series are limited in their scope and application. Cross-sectional studies, likewise, cannot provide answers to specific variable testing with a temporal application. It is essential for the reptile specialty to expand into case-control studies, cohort studies, and experimental/intervention studies. Unfortunately, much of the reptile literature remains limited to descriptive studies. This article reviews current evidence-based topics in reptile medicine and shares how everyone practicing in the field can contribute to improving this specialty.

Modeling Hematologic and Biochemical Parameters with Spatiotemporal Analysis for the Free-Ranging Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) in Illinois and Tennessee, a Potential Biosentinel

Box turtles are long-lived, inhabit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats, and have relatively small home ranges making them a suitable candidate as a sentinel. To characterize their changes in response to environmental health, assessment of observed variation of this species is required. Thus, a comparative health assessment was employed in 825 Eastern box turtles in east central Illinois and Oak Ridge, Tennessee, to establish a baseline health assessment with regard to sex, age class, season, and location, identify temporal trends, and map parameters. Hematological and plasma biochemical variables measured included packed cell volume, total solids, white blood cell and differential counts, calcium, phosphorus, aspartate aminotransferase, bile acids, creatine kinase, and uric acid. These variables were reduced to four principle components that explained 68.8 % of the cumulative variance. The top model included the main effects of year, location, and sex, but no interactions. Spatial analysis of turtles in Tennessee demonstrated increased WBC and decreased PCV in 2011 associated with a clear-cut silviculture site. The results of this health assessment can serve as a baseline of population health in future studies and aid in the utility of this species as a sentinel.

Reptile Soft Tissue Surgery

The surgical approach to reptiles can be challenging. Reptiles have unique physiologic, anatomic, and pathologic differences. This may result in frustrating surgical experiences. However, recent investigations provided novel, less invasive, surgical techniques. The purpose of this review was to describe the technical aspects behind soft tissue surgical techniques that have been used in reptiles, so as to provide a general guideline for veterinarians working with reptiles.