Cytokines as therapeutic agents and targets in heart disease

Role of metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease in atrial fibrillation and heart failure: molecular and clinical aspects

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MASLD) is a rising global health concern. In addition to direct hepatic complications, extra-hepatic complications, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD), type 2 diabetes (T2D), gastroesophageal reflux disease, chronic kidney disease and some malignancies, are increasingly recognized. CVD, including atrial fibrillation (AF) and heart failure (HF), is the leading cause of death in patients with MASLD. External factors, including excess energy intake, sedentary lifestyle and xenobiotic use, induce inflammation-related complications. MASLD, AF, and HF are associated with immune system activation, including the reprogramming of immune cells and the establishment of immune memory. Emerging evidence suggests that the heart and the liver cross-talk with each other through the diverse spectrum of autocrine, paracrine and endocrine mechanisms. Pro-inflammatory cytokines produced from the liver and the heart circulate systemically to orchestrate metabolic derangements that promote the systematic immune dysregulation in the heart-liver axis and the development of end-organ complications. Cardio-hepatic syndrome describes the clinical and biochemical evidence of hepatic dysfunction and cardiac pathology due to the interaction between the heart and the liver. Activation of inflammatory cascades, oxidative stress and immune system dysregulation underlie key mechanisms in bringing about such pathological changes. This review focuses on the current clinical and molecular evidence about the heart-liver cross-talk. It summarizes the epidemiological and pathophysiological associations of MASLD, AF and HF. In addition, we will discuss how repurposing currently available and emerging pharmacotherapies may help tackle the cardiovascular risks resulting from MASLD.

Customized Heparinized Alginate and Collagen Hydrogels for Tunable, Local Delivery of Angiogenic Proteins

Therapeutic protein delivery has ushered in a promising new generation of disease treatment, garnering more recognition for its clinical potential than ever. However, proteins' limited stability, extremely short average half-lives, and evidenced toxicity following systemic delivery continue to undercut their efficacy. Biomaterial-based protein delivery, however, demonstrates the potential to overcome these obstacles. To this end, we have developed a heparinized alginate and collagen hydrogel for the local, sustained delivery of therapeutic proteins. In an effort to match this ubiquitous application of protein delivery to various disease states and target tissues with sufficient versatility, we identified three distinct delivery modes as design targets. A shear-thinning, low-viscosity injectable for minimal tissue damage, a higher-viscosity gel plug for subcutaneous injection, and a submillimeter-thickness film for solid-form implantation were optimized and characterized in this work. In vitro assessments confirmed feasible injection control, mechanical stability for up to 6 h of unsubmerged storage, and isotropic early collagen fibril assembly. Release kinetics were assessed both in vitro and in vivo, demonstrating up to 14 days of functional vascular endothelial growth factor delivery. Rodent models of pulmonary hypertension, subcutaneous injection, and myocardial infarction, three promising applications of protein therapeutics, were used to assess the feasible delivery and biocompatibility of the injectable gel, gel plug, and film, respectively. Histological evaluation of the delivered materials and surrounding tissue showed high biocompatibility with cell and blood vessel infiltration, remodeling, and integration with the host tissue. Our successful customization of the biomaterial to heterogeneous delivery modes demonstrates its versatile capacity for the local, sustained delivery of therapeutic proteins for a diverse array of regenerative medicine applications.

Cytokines are the Basis of the Development and Suppression of Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular diseases continue to be the primary cause of mortality in industrialised countries, and atherosclerosis plays a role in their development. A persistent inflammatory condition affecting big and medium-sized arteries is known as atherosclerosis. It is brought on by dyslipidemia and is facilitated by the immune system's innate and adaptive components. At every stage of the progression of atherosclerosis, inflammation plays a crucial role. It has been demonstrated that soluble factors, or cytokines, activate cells involved in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and have a significant impact on disease progression. Anti-inflammatory cytokines (such as interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-13) mitigate atherosclerosis, whereas pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as IL-1, IL-6) quicken the disease's course. Of interest is the fact that a number of cytokines can exhibit both atherogenic and atheroprotective properties, which is the topic of study and discussion in this review. This review provides a comparative analysis of the functions of the main cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Their functional relationships with each other are also shown. In addition, potential therapeutic strategies targeting these cytokines for the treatment of atherosclerosis are proposed, with an emphasis on recent clinical research in this area.

Cardiac tissue-resident vesicles differentially modulate anti-fibrotic phenotype by age and sex through synergistic miRNA effects

Aging is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death worldwide. Cardiac fibrosis is a harmful result of repeated myocardial infarction that increases risk of morbidity and future injury. Interestingly, both rates and outcomes of cardiac fibrosis differ between young and aged individuals, as well as men and women. Here, for the first time, we identify and isolate matrix-bound extracellular vesicles from the left ventricles (LVs) of young or aged males and females in both human and murine models. These LV vesicles (LVVs) show differences in morphology and content between these four cohorts in both humans and mice. LVV effects on fibrosis were also investigated in vitro, and aged male LVVs were pro-fibrotic while other LVVs were anti-fibrotic. From these LVVs, we could identify therapeutic miRNAs to promote anti-fibrotic effects. Four miRNAs were identified and together, but not individually, demonstrated significant cardioprotective effects when transfected. This suggests that miRNA synergy can regulate cell response, not just individual miRNAs, and also indicates that biological agent-associated therapeutic effects may be recapitulated using non-immunologically active agents. Furthermore, that chronic changes in LVV miRNA content may be a major factor in sex- and age-dependent differences in clinical outcomes of cardiac fibrosis.

Exploring cytokines dynamics: Uncovering therapeutic concepts for metabolic disorders in postmenopausal women- diabetes, metabolic bone diseases, and non-alcohol fatty liver disease

Menopause is an age-related change that persists for around one-third of a woman's life. Menopause increases the risk of metabolic illnesses such as diabetes, osteoporosis (OP), and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Immune mediators (pro-inflammatory cytokines), such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-17, transforming growth factor (TGF), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), exacerbate the challenges of a woman undergoing menopause by causing inflammation and contributing to the development of these metabolic diseases in postmenopausal women. Furthermore, studies have shown that anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 receptor antagonists (IL-1Ra), IL-2, and IL-10 have a double-edged effect on diabetes and OP. Likewise, several interferon (IFN) members are double-edged swords in the OP. Therefore, addressing these immune mediators precisely may be an approach to improving the health of postmenopausal women. Hence, considering the significant changes in these cytokines, the present review focuses on the latest findings concerning the molecular mechanisms by which pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukins) impact postmenopausal women with diabetes, OP, and NAFLD. Furthermore, we comprehensively discuss the therapeutic approaches that identify cytokines as therapeutic targets, such as hormonal therapy, physical activities, natural inhibitors (drugs), and others. Finally, this review aims to provide valuable insights into the role of cytokines in postmenopausal women's diabetes, OP, and NAFLD. Deeply investigating the mechanisms and therapeutic interventions involved will address the characteristics of immune mediators (cytokines) and improve the management of these illnesses, thereby enhancing the general quality of life and health of the corresponding populations of women.

Molecular probes for super-resolution imaging of drug dynamics

Super-resolution molecular probes (SRMPs) are essential tools for visualizing drug dynamics within cells, transcending the resolution limits of conventional microscopy. In this review, we provide an overview of the principles and design strategies of SRMPs, emphasizing their role in accurately tracking drug molecules. By illuminating the intricate processes of drug distribution, diffusion, uptake, and metabolism at a subcellular and molecular level, SRMPs offer crucial insights into therapeutic interventions. Additionally, we explore the practical applications of super-resolution imaging in disease treatment, highlighting the significance of SRMPs in advancing our understanding of drug action. Finally, we discuss future perspectives, envisioning potential advancements and innovations in this field. Overall, this review serves to inform and practitioners about the utility of SRMPs in driving innovation and progress in pharmacology, providing valuable insights for drug development and optimization.

CAR-T cell therapeutic avenue for fighting cardiac fibrosis: Roadblocks and perspectives

Heart diseases remain the primary cause of human mortality in the world. Although conventional therapeutic opportunities fail to halt or recover cardiac fibrosis, the promising clinical results and therapeutic efficacy of engineered chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy show several advancements. However, the current models of CAR-T cells need further improvement since the T cells are associated with the triggering of excessive inflammatory cytokines that directly affect cardiac functions. Thus, the current study highlights the critical function of heart immune cells in tissue fibrosis and repair. The study also confirms CAR-T cell as an emerging therapeutic for treating cardiac fibrosis, explores the current roadblocks to CAR-T cell therapy, and considers future outlooks for research development.

The Role of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in the Pathogenesis of Cardiovascular Disease

With cardiovascular disease (CVD) being a primary source of global morbidity and mortality, it is crucial that we understand the molecular pathophysiological mechanisms at play. Recently, numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines have been linked to several different CVDs, which are now often considered an adversely pro-inflammatory state. These cytokines most notably include interleukin-6 (IL-6),tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α, and the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family, amongst others. Not only does inflammation have intricate and complex interactions with pathophysiological processes such as oxidative stress and calcium mishandling, but it also plays a role in the balance between tissue repair and destruction. In this regard, pre-clinical and clinical evidence has clearly demonstrated the involvement and dynamic nature of pro-inflammatory cytokines in many heart conditions; however, the clinical utility of the findings so far remains unclear. Whether these cytokines can serve as markers or risk predictors of disease states or act as potential therapeutic targets, further extensive research is needed to fully understand the complex network of interactions that these molecules encompass in the context of heart disease. This review will highlight the significant advances in our understanding of the contributions of pro-inflammatory cytokines in CVDs, including ischemic heart disease (atherosclerosis, thrombosis, acute myocardial infarction, and ischemia-reperfusion injury), cardiac remodeling (hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, cardiac fibrosis, cardiac apoptosis, and heart failure), different cardiomyopathies as well as ventricular arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation. In addition, this article is focused on discussing the shortcomings in both pathological and therapeutic aspects of pro-inflammatory cytokines in CVD that still need to be addressed by future studies.

Lipid Nanoparticles for mRNA Delivery to Enhance Cancer Immunotherapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is being developed by researchers as a novel drug for the treatment or prevention of many diseases. However, to enable mRNA to fully exploit its effects in vivo, researchers need to develop safer and more effective mRNA delivery systems that improve mRNA stability and enhance the ability of cells to take up and release mRNA. To date, lipid nanoparticles are promising nanodrug carriers for tumor therapy, which can significantly improve the immunotherapeutic effects of conventional drugs by modulating mRNA delivery, and have attracted widespread interest in the biomedical field. This review focuses on the delivery of mRNA by lipid nanoparticles for cancer treatment. We summarize some common tumor immunotherapy and mRNA delivery strategies, describe the clinical advantages of lipid nanoparticles for mRNA delivery, and provide an outlook on the current challenges and future developments of this technology.

Fluoride Can Damage the Spleen of Mice by Perturbing Th1/Th2 Cell Balance

To investigate the mechanism of fluoride-induced splenic toxicity, 0, 25, 50, and 100 mg/L sodium fluoride (NaF) were administered in male mice via drinking water for 90 days. After NaF treatment, the histological structure of the spleen, the proportion of helper T 1 cell (Th1) and helper T 2 cell (Th2), and the relative expression levels of cytokines and T-bet and GATA3 were analyzed. The results showed that 50 and 100 mg/L NaF consumption can change the normal structure of mouse spleen and the proportion of Th1/Th2 cells. It also decreased the mRNA expression levels of IL-2, INF-γ, and TGF-β, but increased the levels of IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10. Importantly, fluoride increased the protein expression of GATA3 but decreased the expression of T-bet. Our findings indicate that superfluous fluoride intake damages the balance of Th1/Th2 cells by changing the levels of T-bet and GATA3 in the spleen, and further changes the expression of Th1/Th2 cell-related cytokines in the spleen microenvironment, eventually leading to spleen injury.

Effect of Natural Cytokine Complex on Metabolism of Smooth Muscle Cells in Myocardial Arteries under Normal Conditions and during Hemodynamic Overload

Histoenzymological methods were employed to examine the effects of systemically administered natural cytokine complex including IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNFα, MIF, and TGFβ on metabolism of smooth muscle cells in intramural myocardial arteries under physiological conditions and during acute hemodynamic overload of the heart. Natural cytokine complex markedly inhibited metabolism of vascular smooth muscle cells under control conditions and during acute experimental aortal stenosis. In vascular smooth muscle cells, deceleration of tricarboxylic acid cycle, redistribution of the fluxes in glycolytic cascade and its inhibition, down-regulation of oxidation of free fatty acids and their metabolites, and inhibition of the shuttle systems and biosynthetic processes were observed. Inhibition of metabolism in the vascular wall of myocardial arteries correlated with a decrease in their tone and could be partially determined by a decrease in contractile activity of smooth muscle cells. These findings do not exclude the involvement of other factors and mechanisms in down-regulation of metabolism in vascular myocytes in response to increased cytokines levels of in the blood, including their direct effect on biochemical processes in cells.

Mechanisms underlying the cross-talk between heart and cancer

Cardiovascular diseases and cancer remain the leading cause of death worldwide. Despite the fact that these two conditions have long been considered as distinct clinical entities, recent epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that they should be contemplated and treated as co-morbidities. Heart failure represents nowadays a well-established complication of cancer, primarily as a consequence of the aggressive use of cardiotoxic anti-cancer treatments. On the other hand, the provocative idea that heart failure can prime carcinogenesis has started to emerge, though the molecular basis is still to be fully elucidated. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the mechanisms underlying the bidirectional communication between the failing heart and the cancer. We will discuss and/or speculate on the role of molecular mediators released by either the tumour or the heart that can potentially link heart failure and cancer.