Specificity of replicative and SOS-inducible DNA polymerases in frameshift mutagenesis: mutability of Salmonella typhimurium strains overexpressing SOS-inducible DNA polymerases to 30 chemical mutagens

Hazardous gas emissions from drop-in biofuels: mutagenicity, cytotoxicity, and unregulated pollutants

This study investigates cancer-related mutations (TA98 and YG5185 strains/Ames test), cell death (human A549 cell line/MTT assay) and unregulated pollutants (16 PAH, 13 carbonyls) from the gas exhaust emissions from a last-mile delivery vehicle following the WLTC driving cycle, operating with hydrotreated vegetable oil and biodiesel. Both biofuels were used pure and blended 20 % by volume with diesel fuel. Gas phase samples were collected using XAD-2 Amberlite® resin. Total carbonyl emission factors for the different fuels ranged from 9.4 ± 0.4 (HVO100) to 14.8 ± 1.6 mg/km (B20), while PAH emission factors ranged from 1.8 ± 0.5 (B100) to 4.3 ± 0.9 mg/km (HVO20). The ester group in biodiesel demonstrated a significant impact on increasing carbonyl emissions. All fuels were cytotoxic at the highest concentration of exhaust gases, causing more than 30 % cell death in human cell line A549 (HVO100 ≈ HVO20 > B100 ≈ B20 > ULSD). No significant correlation was found between cytotoxicity and most of PAH and carbonyls. A strong correlation between PAH and mutagenicity (Pearson correlation coefficient higher than 0.6 for PAH with 3 or more rings) was observed with strain YG5185, particularly when using the metabolic activator. These results indicate that the exhaust gases from the tested biofuels pose potential health risks, particularly in chronic exposure scenarios.

Opposing roles of Y-family DNA polymerases in lipid peroxide mutagenesis at the hisG46 target in the Ames test

DNA polymerases play a key role in mutagenesis by performing translesion DNA synthesis (TLS). The Y-family of DNA polymerases comprises several evolutionarily conserved families, specializing in TLS of different DNA adducts. Exocyclic etheno and propano DNA adducts are among the most common endogenous DNA lesions induced by lipid peroxidation reactions triggered by oxidative stress. We have investigated the participation of two enterobacterial representatives of the PolIV and PolV branches of Y-family DNA polymerases in mutagenesis by two model lipid peroxidation derived genotoxins, glyoxal and crotonaldehyde. Mutagenesis by the ethano adduct (glyoxal-derived) and the propano adduct (crontonaldehyde-derived) at the GC target in the Ames test depended exclusively on PolV type DNA polymerases such as PolRI. In contrast, PolIV suppressed glyoxal and, even more, crotonaldehyde mutagenesis, as detected by enzyme overexpression and gene knockout approaches. We propose that DNA polymerase IV, which is the mammalian DNA polymerase κ ortholog, acts as a housekeeper protecting the genome from lipoxidative stress.

Translesion DNA Synthesis

All living organisms are continually exposed to agents that damage their DNA, which threatens the integrity of their genome. As a consequence, cells are equipped with a plethora of DNA repair enzymes to remove the damaged DNA. Unfortunately, situations nevertheless arise where lesions persist, and these lesions block the progression of the cell's replicase. In these situations, cells are forced to choose between recombination-mediated "damage avoidance" pathways or a specialized DNA polymerase (pol) to traverse the blocking lesion. The latter process is referred to as Translesion DNA Synthesis (TLS). As inferred by its name, TLS not only results in bases being (mis)incorporated opposite DNA lesions but also bases being (mis)incorporated downstream of the replicase-blocking lesion, so as to ensure continued genome duplication and cell survival. Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium possess five DNA polymerases, and while all have been shown to facilitate TLS under certain experimental conditions, it is clear that the LexA-regulated and damage-inducible pols II, IV, and V perform the vast majority of TLS under physiological conditions. Pol V can traverse a wide range of DNA lesions and performs the bulk of mutagenic TLS, whereas pol II and pol IV appear to be more specialized TLS polymerases.

Two nitro derivatives of azabenzo[a]pyrene N-oxide: electronic properties and their relation to mutagenic activity

The equilibrium geometries, relative energies, IR and Raman spectra, vertical ionization potentials (IP), vertical electron affinities (EA), dipole moments (μ), electronic dipole polarizabilities (α), and molecular electrostatic potentials (MEP) of two species that show very high mutagenicity, 1-nitro-6-azabenzo[a]pyrene N-oxide (1-N-6-ABPO) and 3-nitro-6-azabenzo[a]pyrene N-oxide (3-N-6-ABPO), are investigated by means of Density Functional Theory (DFT) using B3LYP functional with different basis sets. The 3-N-6-ABPO isomer was estimated to be much more mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium tester strain TA98 (396,000 revertants/nmol) than 1-N-6-ABPO (36100 revertants/nmol) (Fukuhara et al., 1992). The results show that for both isomers the structural, energetic, and vibrational properties are similar. The orientation of the nitro group with respect to the plane of the aromatic system as well as the nitroreduction and oxidation reaction and polarizability seem not be important for the determination of different mutagenic behavior of these isomers. However, the dipole moment of 3-N-6-ABPO is about 3 times that of 1-N-6-ABPO. The larger dipole moment and the different electronic charge distribution of 3-N-6-ABPO compared to 1-N-6-ABPO imply stronger electrostatic and inductive molecular interactions so that the active site of the enzyme involved in the mutagenic activation can more effectively bind 3-N-6-ABPO compared to 1-N-6-ABPO.

Sensitivity of Salmonella YG5161 for detecting PAH-associated mutagenicity in air particulate matter

The Salmonella/microsome assay is the most used assay for the evaluation of air particulate matter (PM) mutagenicity and a positive correlation between strain TA98 responses and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) levels in PM has been found. However, it seems that the major causes of PM mutagenicity in this assay are the nitro and oxy-PAHs. Salmonella YG5161, a 30-times more responsive strain to B[a]P has been developed. To verify if YG5161 strain was sufficiently sensitive to detect mutagenicity associated with B[a]P mutagenicity, PM samples were collected in Brazil and Sweden, extracted with toluene and tested in the Salmonella/microsome microsuspension assay. PAHs and B[a]P were determined and the extracts were tested with YG5161 and its parental strain TA1538. The extracts were also tested with YG1041 and its parental strain TA98. For sensitivity comparisons, we tested B[a]P and 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) using the same conditions. The minimal effective dose of B[a]P was 155 ng/plate for TA1538 and 7 ng/plate for YG5161. Although the maximum tested dose, 10 m(3) /plate containing 9 ng of B[a]P in the case of Brazilian sample, was sufficient to elicit a response in YG5161, mutagenicity was detected at a dose as low as 1 m(3) /plate (0.9 ng). This is probably caused by nitro-compounds that have been shown to be even more potent than B[a]P for YG5161. It seems that the mutagenicity of B[a]P present in PM is not detectable even with the use of YG5161 unless more efficient separation to remove the nitro-compounds from the PAH extract is performed.

Bacterial mutation assays

Bacterial mutagenicity tests, specifically the Salmonella and E. coli reverse mutation (Ames) test, are widely used and are usually required before a chemical, drug, pesticide, or food additive can be registered for use. The tests are also widely used for environmental monitoring to detect mutagens in air or water. Their use is based on the showing that a positive result in the test was highly predictive for carcinogenesis. This chapter describes the Salmonella and E. coli tests, presents protocols for their use, and addresses data interpretation and reporting.

Genetic toxicology and toxicogenomic analysis of three cigarette smoke condensates in vitro reveals few differences among full-flavor, blonde, and light products

Cigarette smoking leads to various detrimental health outcomes. Tobacco companies produce different brands of cigarettes that are marketed as reduced harm tobacco products. Early examples included "light" cigarettes, which differ from regular cigarettes due to filter ventilation and/or differences in chemical constituents. In order to establish baseline similarities and differences among different tobacco brands available in Canada, the present study examined the cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, clastogenicity, and gene expression profiles of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) from three tobacco products, encompassing a full-flavor, blonde, and "light" variety. Using the Salmonella mutagenicity assay, we confirmed that the three CSCs are mutagenic, and that the potency is related to the presence of aromatic amines. Using the Muta™Mouse FE1 cell line we determined that the CSCs were clastogenic and cytotoxic, but nonmutagenic, and the results showed few differences in potencies among the three brands. There were no clear brand-specific changes in gene expression; each brand yielded highly similar expression profiles within a time point and concentration. The molecular pathways and biological functions affected by exposure included xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress, DNA damage response, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, as well as inflammation. Thus, there was no appreciable difference in toxicity or gene expression profiles between regular brands and products marketed as "light," and hence no evidence of reduced harm. The work establishes baseline CSC cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, and expression profiles that can be used as a point of reference for comparison with data generated for products marketed as reduced harm and/or modified risk tobacco products.

Translesion DNA polymerases are required for spontaneous deletion formation in Salmonella typhimurium

How spontaneous deletions form in bacteria is still a partly unresolved problem. Here, we show that deletion formation in Salmonella typhimurium requires the presence of functional translesion polymerases. First, in wild-type bacteria, removal of the known translesion DNA polymerases, PolII (polB), PolIV (dinB), PolV (umuDC), and SamAB (samAB), resulted in a 10-fold decrease in the deletion rate, indicating that 90% of all spontaneous deletions require these polymerases for their formation. Second, overexpression of these polymerases by derepression of the DNA damage-inducible LexA regulon caused a 25-fold increase in deletion rate that depended on the presence of functional translesion polymerases. Third, overexpression of the polymerases PolII and PolIV from a plasmid increased the deletion rate 12- to 30-fold, respectively. Last, in a recBC(-) mutant where dsDNA ends are stabilized due to the lack of the end-processing nuclease RecBC, the deletion rate was increased 20-fold. This increase depended on the translesion polymerases. In lexA(def) mutant cells with constitutive SOS expression, a 10-fold increase in DNA breaks was observed. Inactivation of all 4 translesion polymerases in the lexA(def) mutant reduced the deletion rate 250-fold without any concomitant reduction in the amount of DNA breaks. Mutational inactivation of 3 endonucleases under LexA control reduced the number of DNA breaks to the wild-type level in a lexA(def) mutant with a concomitant 50-fold reduction in deletion rate. These findings suggest that the translesion polymerases are not involved in forming the DNA breaks, but that they require them to stimulate deletion formation.

Genotoxicity, inflammation and physico-chemical properties of fine particle samples from an incineration energy plant and urban air

Airborne particulate matter (PM) was sampled by use of an electrostatic sampler in an oven hall and a receiving hall in a waste-incineration energy plant, and from urban air in a heavy-traffic street and from background air in Copenhagen. PM was sampled for 1-2 weeks, four samples at each site. The samples were extracted and examined for mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, YG1041 and YG5161, for content of inorganic elements and for the presence of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The induction of IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression and the presence of DNA damage - tested by the comet assay - were determined after 24-h incubations with human A549 lung epithelial cells. The PM(2.5) concentration was about twofold greater in the oven hall than in the receiving hall. The particle size distribution in the receiving hall was similar to that in street air (maximum mode at about 25nm), but the distribution was completely different in the oven hall (maximum mode at about 150nm). Also chemically, the samples from the oven hall were highly different from the other samples. PM extracts from the receiving hall, street and background air were more mutagenic than the PM extracts from the oven hall. PM from all four sites caused similar levels of DNA damage in A549 cells; only the oven hall samples gave results that were statistically significantly different from those obtained with street-air samples. The receiving hall and the urban air samples were similarly inflammatory (relative IL-8 mRNA expression), whereas the oven hall did not cause a statistically significant increase in IL-8 mRNA expression. A principal component analysis separated the oven hall and the receiving hall by the first principal component. These two sites were separated from street and background air with the second principal component. Several clusters of constituents were identified. One cluster consisted of all the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), several groups of metals and one group of the biological endpoints (DNA damage, IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression). The PAH and the inorganic content of the air in the receiving hall may be due to vehicle emissions and suspended waste particles. The inorganic content in the street and background air may have been influenced by break wear, road emissions and long-range transport. The results from a partial least-square regression analysis predicted that both PAHs and a group of metals including Fe and Mn contributed to IL-6 and IL-8 induction. Only Mn and Sr were predicted to influence DNA damage statistically significantly. Among the PAHs only chrysene had influence on DNA damage. The PM from the oven hall was markedly different from the PM at other locations in particle size distribution, chemical composition and the resulting biological effects when A549 cells were incubated with the PM. These characteristics and observations in the oven hall indicated that the PM source was oven exhaust, which was well combusted.

Environmental stress and lesion-bypass DNA polymerases

In nature, microbes live under a variety of harsh conditions, such as excess DNA damage, starvation, pH shift, or high temperatures. Microbial cells respond to such stressful conditions mostly by switching global patterns of gene expression to relieve the environmental stress. The SOS response, which is induced by DNA damage, is one such global network of gene expression that plays a crucial role in balancing the genomic stability and flexibility that are necessary to adapt to harsh environments. Here, I review the roles of SOS-inducible and noninducible lesion-bypass DNA polymerases in mutagenesis induced by environmental stress, and discuss how these polymerases are coordinated for the replication of damaged chromosomes. Possible contributions of lesion-bypass DNA polymerase in hyperthermophilic archaea, e.g., Sulfolobus solfataricus, to genome maintenance are also discussed.

Involvement of Y-family DNA polymerases in mutagenesis caused by oxidized nucleotides in Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli DNA polymerase IV incorporated 2-hydroxy-dATP opposite template guanine or thymine and 8-hydroxy-dGTP exclusively opposite adenine in vitro. Mutator phenotypes in sod/fur strains were substantially diminished by deletion of dinB and/or umuDC. DNA polymerases IV and V may be involved in mutagenesis caused by incorporation of the oxidized deoxynucleoside triphosphates.