Environmental contributions to cognitive development: The role of cognitive stimulation

The role of socioeconomic status in shaping associations between sensory association cortex and prefrontal structure and implications for executive function

Socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with widespread differences in structure of temporal, parietal, occipital, and frontal cortices. Development of sensory processing regions-in particular visual association cortex (VAC) and auditory association cortex (AAC)-may scaffold development of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Experiences that correlate with SES like cognitive stimulation and language may influence VAC and AAC development, in turn allowing the PFC to resolve conflicts between similar stimuli. SES-related differences in these regions may partly explain differences in executive function (EF) skills. Here, we use structural equation modeling of longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study to test the hypothesis that SES-related differences in AAC and VAC are associated with differences in structure of the PFC and development of the PFC over time, which in turn are associated with development of EF. We found partial support for this model, demonstrating that SES-related differences in PFC structure are mediated by differences in sensory cortex structure, and that SES-related differences in sensory cortex structure mediate the association between SES and EF. These findings highlight the role sensory processing regions play in SES-related differences in PFC development. Future studies should explore proximal environmental factors driving SES-related differences to inform interventions.

Developmental Surveillance and Anticipatory Guidance for Working Parents in Supporting Child Development

Early childhood development shapes lifelong learning and skill development. This paper elucidates developmental surveillance and screening in pediatric care, particularly within the Indian context. Developmental surveillance monitors a child's progress during routine visits using age-appropriate milestone checklists, while developmental screening uses standardized tools at key stages to detect delays early, complementing ongoing surveillance efforts.Various screening tools have been examined, along with the challenges of selecting culturally appropriate instruments, especially in resource-limited settings. The role of Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK) as a structured approach to screening and early intervention that provides comprehensive child health services is highlighted. The importance of anticipatory guidance, which equips parents with the knowledge and strategies to handle childhood challenges before they occur, is emphasized.Working parents face challenges in creating stimulating home environments that support their children's development. Despite time constraints, maximizing quality interactions, choosing appropriate toys, managing screen time, incorporating learning into daily routines, and promoting shared reading can all foster development. Success lies in warm, consistent interactions and transforming daily moments into learning opportunities, rather than relying on expensive resources. Healthcare providers play a vital role in guiding parents with advice and strategies to enhance child development effectively.

Neuroadaptation in neurodegenerative diseases: compensatory mechanisms and therapeutic approaches

Progressive neuronal loss is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), which cause cognitive and motor impairment. Delaying the onset and course of symptoms is largely dependent on neuroadaptation, the brain's ability to restructure in response to damage. The molecular, cellular, and systemic processes that underlie neuroadaptation are examined in this study. These mechanisms include gliosis, neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and changes in neurotrophic factors. Axonal sprouting, dendritic remodelling, and compensatory alterations in neurotransmitter systems are important adaptations observed in NDDs; nevertheless, these processes may shift to maladaptive plasticity, which would aid in the advancement of the illness. Amyloid and tau pathology-induced synaptic alterations in Alzheimer's disease emphasize compensatory network reconfiguration. Dopamine depletion causes a major remodelling of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease, and non-dopaminergic systems compensate. Both ALS and Huntington's disease rely on motor circuit rearrangement and transcriptional dysregulation to slow down functional deterioration. Neuroadaptation is, however, constrained by oxidative stress, compromised autophagy, and neuroinflammation, particularly in elderly populations. The goal of emerging therapy strategies is to improve neuroadaptation by pharmacologically modifying neurotrophic factors, neuroinflammation, and synaptic plasticity. Neurostimulation, cognitive training, and physical rehabilitation are instances of non-pharmacological therapies that support neuroplasticity. Restoring compensating systems may be possible with the use of stem cell techniques and new gene treatments. The goal of future research is to combine biomarkers and individualized medicines to maximize neuroadaptive responses and decrease the course of illness. In order to reduce neurodegeneration and enhance patient outcomes, this review highlights the dual function of neuroadaptation in NDDs and its potential as a therapeutic target.

Longitudinal associations between greenspace exposure, structural brain development, and mental health and academic performance during early adolescence

BACKGROUND

Greenspace exposure is associated with positive mental health and academic outcomes. This preregistered longitudinal study examines whether the influence of greenspace exposure on structural brain development partially explains these associations.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (N=7102), to test the relationship between greenspace exposure at age 9-10 and brain structure two years later, as well as change over time. Additionally, we tested whether brain structural development statistically mediated the associations of greenspace exposure with mental health and academic performance.

RESULTS

Greenspace exposure was associated with greater total surface area (SA) and cortical volume (CV), greater cortical thickness (CT) in temporal regions and the insula, lower thickness in the caudal middle frontal and superior frontal gyri, greater SA across several regions, and greater volume of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens. In analyses studying change in brain structure over time, higher greenspace exposure was associated with greater growth of total SA, lower average thickness reduction, and reduced total CV growth as well as changes at the regional level. We also found significant indirect effects of the association of greenspace exposure with academic performance and mental health through both total and regional cortical structure.

CONCLUSIONS

Greenspace exposure is linked to structural neurodevelopment, which is, in turn, associated with better mental health and academic achievement. Our findings underscore the importance of greenspace in supporting brain development and positive outcomes in children and adolescents.

Qualitative and quantitative educational disparities and brain signatures in healthy aging and dementia across global settings

Background

While education is crucial for brain health, evidence mainly relies on individual measures of years of education (YoE), neglecting education quality (EQ). The effect of YoE and EQ on aging and dementia has not been compared.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional assessment of the effect of EQ and YoE on brain health in 7533 subjects from 20 countries, including healthy controls (HCs), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). EQ was based on country-level quality indicators provided by the programme for international student assessment (PISA). After applying neuroimage harmonization, we examined its effect, along with YoE, on gray matter volume and functional connectivity. Regression models were adjusted for age, sex, and cognition, controlling for multiple comparisons. The influence of image quality was assessed through sensitivity analysis. Data collection was conducted between June 1 and October 30, 2024.

Findings

Less EQ and YoE were associated with brain alterations across groups. However, EQ had a stronger influence, mainly targeting the critical areas of each condition. At the whole-brain level, EQ influenced volume (HCs: Δmean = 2·0 [1·9-2·0] × 10-2, p < 10-5; AD: Δmean = 0·1 [-0·0 to 0·3] × 10-2, p = 0·18; FTLD: Δmean = 3·5 [3·0-4·0] × 10-2, p < 10-5; all with 95% confidence intervals) and networks (HCs: Δmean = 13·5 [13·2-13·7] × 10-2, p < 10-5; AD: Δmean = 5·9 [5·2-6·7] × 10-2, p < 10-5; FTLD: Δmean = 13·2 [11·2-13·7] × 10-2, p < 10-5) 1·3 to 7·0 times more than YoE. These effects remain robust despite variations in income and socioeconomic factors at country and individual levels.

Interpretation

The results support the need to incorporate education quality into studying and improving brain health, underscoring the importance of country-level measures.

Funding

Multi-partner consortium to expand dementia research in Latin America (ReDLat).

Annual Research Review: Associations of socioeconomic status with cognitive function, language ability, and academic achievement in youth: a systematic review of mechanisms and protective factors

Low socioeconomic status (SES) is negatively associated with children's cognitive and academic performance, leading to long-term educational and economic disparities. In particular, SES is a powerful predictor of executive function (EF), language ability, and academic achievement. Despite extensive research documenting SES-related differences in these domains, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying these associations and factors that may mitigate these relationships is limited. This systematic review aimed to identify the mediators and moderators in the association of SES with EF, language ability, and academic achievement. Our synthesis revealed stress, support, stimulation, and broader contextual factors at the school- and neighborhood level to be important mediators and protective factors in these associations. In particular, cognitive stimulation mediated the association of SES with EF, language ability, and academic achievement. Educational expectations, classroom and school environment, and teacher-student relationships also played a key role in the association of SES with academic achievement. In addition, factors such as preschool attendance, home learning activities, and parental support buffered the association between low SES and lower cognitive and language outcomes. We discuss these findings in the context of interventions that may help to reduce SES-related cognitive and educational disparities.

Cognitive Stimulation and Maternal Feeding Styles in Families with Low Incomes: Impacts from a Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between cognitive stimulation in the home at 6 months and maternal feeding styles at 24 months, direct intervention effects of Smart Beginnings (SB) on feeding styles, and potential indirect effects of SB on feeding styles via earlier intervention effects on cognitive stimulation.

METHODS

Single-blind, two-site randomized clinical trial (RCT) of the SB intervention. SB integrates PlayReadVIP, a universal, pediatric primary care-based program, and Family Check-Up (FCU), a targeted secondary home-based parenting intervention. Mother-infant dyads (N = 327) were randomized at birth to standard pediatric care or the SB intervention. Linear regression analyses determined associations between cognitive stimulation at 6 months and maternal feeding styles at 24 months, a secondary data analysis. Direct intervention impacts on feeding styles, a secondary RCT outcome, were also assessed and mediation analyses explored intervention effects on feeding styles via earlier intervention impacts on cognitive stimulation.

RESULTS

Cognitive stimulation was significantly associated with higher responsive and lower indulgent feeding styles. SB mothers were less likely to exhibit pressuring styles compared with controls (Effect Size [ES]=-0.12, P = 0.02). Although no direct intervention effects were found on responsive or indulgent feeding styles, indirect effects of SB were evident on these feeding styles through intervention-induced increases in cognitive stimulation in the SB group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found positive linkages between cognitive stimulation in the home and later feeding styles. Additionally, the SB intervention was associated with less pressured feeding and indirect pathways mediated by intervention effects on cognitive stimulation. Implications for early childhood parenting interventions are discussed.

Family poverty, neighbourhood greenspace and perinatal outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between low income and adverse perinatal outcomes, such as low birth weight and developmental delays, is well established making the search for protective factors important. One such factor may be neighbourhood greenspace. This study elucidates the role of urban neighbourhood greenspace in the relationship between income and perinatal outcomes in a nationally representative birth cohort from the UK.

METHODS

Data on 14 050 infants participating in the initial wave at age 9 months of the Millennium Cohort Study were used (51% male, 20% non-white, 52% living in disadvantaged areas). We tested whether the association between income and perinatal outcomes is moderated by urban greenspace (measured in deciles) before and after adjustments for confounding. The perinatal outcomes included birth weight, gestational age (in days), communication and motor delays. The models were adjusted for the infant's sex and ethnicity, mother's age, education, substance use and mental health as well as area disadvantage and air pollution.

RESULTS

Neighbourhood greenspace moderated the association between income and gestational age, even after adjustment for all confounders, b=-0.11, 95% CI (-0.215, -0.004). For births in low-income households, in particular, it was associated with an increase in gestational age by an average of approximately 3 days. However, after adjustment, greenspace was not found to influence birth weight, communication or motor delays at age 9 months.

CONCLUSION

The biophilic design of urban environments is a modifiable factor for improving perinatal outcomes in the UK as urban greenspaces appear to be mitigating the risk of preterm birth associated with family poverty.