Recent advances in developing polymeric micelles for treating cancer: breakthroughs and bottlenecks in their clinical translation

Polymeric micelles paving the Way: Recent breakthroughs in camptothecin delivery for enhanced chemotherapy

Camptothecin, a natural alkaloid, was first isolated from the bark and stem of the Camptotheca acuminate tree in China. It, along with its analogs, has demonstrated potent anti-cancer activity in preclinical studies, particularly against solid tumors such as lung, breast, ovarian, and colon cancer. Despite its promising anti-cancer activity, the application of camptothecin is limited due to its poor solubility, toxicity, and limited biodistribution. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have been used to overcome limited bioavailability and ensure greater biodistribution after administration. Additionally, various drug delivery systems, particularly polymeric micelles, have been investigated to enhance the solubility, stability, and efficacy of camptothecin. Polymeric micelles offer a promising approach for the delivery of camptothecin. Polymeric micelles possess a core-shell structure, with a typical hydrophobic core, which exhibits a high capacity to incorporate hydrophobic drugs. The structure of polymeric micelles can be engineered to have a high drug loading capacity, thereby enabling them to carry a large amount of hydrophobic drug within their core. The shell portion of polymeric micelles is composed of hydrophilic polymers Furthermore, the hydrophilic segment of polymeric micelles plays an important role in protecting against the reticuloendothelial system (RES). This review provides a discussion on recent research and developments in the delivery of camptothecin using polymeric micelles for the treatment of cancers.

Coumarin-poly(2-oxazoline)s as synergetic and protein-undetected nanovectors for photodynamic therapy

Because of the difficult challenges of nanopharmaceutics, the development of a variety of nanovectors is still highly desired. Photodynamic therapy, which uses a photosensitizer to locally produce reactive oxygen species to kill the undesired cells, is a typical example for which encapsulation has been shown to be beneficial. The present work describes the use of coumarin-functionalized polymeric nanovectors based on the self-assembly of amphiphilic poly(2-oxazoline)s. Encapsulation of pheophorbide a, a known PDT photosensitizer, is shown to lead to an increased efficiency compared to the un-encapsulated version. Interestingly, the presence of coumarin both enhances the desired photocytotoxicity and enables the crosslinking of the vectors. Various nanovectors are examined, differing by their size, shape and hydrophilicity. Their behaviour in PDT protocols on HCT-116 cells monolayers is described, the influence of their crosslinking commented. Furthermore, the formation of a protein corona is assessed.

How Biodegradable Polymers Can be Effective Drug Delivery Systems for Cannabinoids? Prospectives and Challenges

Cannabinoids are compounds found in and derived from the Cannabis plants that have become increasingly recognised as significant modulating factors of physiological mechanisms and inflammatory reactions of the organism, thus inevitably affecting maintenance of homeostasis. Medical Cannabis popularity has surged since its legal regulation growing around the world. Numerous promising discoveries bring more data on cannabinoids' pharmacological characteristics and therapeutic applications. Given the current surge in interest in the medical use of cannabinoids, there is an urgent need for an effective method of their administration. Surpassing low bioavailability, low water solubility, and instability became an important milestone in the advancement of cannabinoids in pharmaceutical applications. The numerous uses of cannabinoids in clinical practice remain restricted by limited administration alternatives, but there is hope when biodegradable polymers are taken into account. The primary objective of this review is to highlight the wide range of indications for which cannabinoids may be used, as well as the polymeric carriers that enhance their effectiveness. The current review described a wide range of therapeutic applications of cannabinoids, including pain management, neurological and sleep disorders, anxiety, and cancer treatment. The use of these compounds was further examined in the area of dermatology and cosmetology. Finally, with the use of biodegradable polymer-based drug delivery systems (DDSs), it was demonstrated that cannabinoids can be delivered specifically to the intended site while also improving the drug's physicochemical properties, emphasizing their utility. Nevertheless, additional clinical trials on novel cannabinoids' formulations are required, as their full spectrum therapeutical potential is yet to be unravelled.

Nanoparticle drug delivery systems responsive to tumor microenvironment: Promising alternatives in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

The conventional therapeutic treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is negatively influenced by the development of tumor cell drug resistant, and systemic toxicity of therapeutic agents due to off-target activity. In accordance with research findings, nanoparticles (NPs) responsive to the tumor microenvironment (TME) have been discovered for providing opportunities to selectively target tumor cells via active targeting or Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect. The combination of the TME control and therapeutic NPs offers promising solutions for improving the prognosis of the TNBC because the TME actively participates in tumor growth, metastasis, and drug resistance. The NP-based systems leverage stimulus-responsive mechanisms, such as low pH value, hypoxic, excessive secretion enzyme, concentration of glutathione (GSH)/reactive oxygen species (ROS), and high concentration of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to combat TNBC progression. Concurrently, NP-based stimulus-responsive introduces a novel approach for drug dosage design, administration, and modification of the pharmacokinetics of conventional chemotherapy and immunotherapy drugs. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the strengths, limitations, applications, perspectives, and future expectations of both novel and traditional stimulus-responsive NP-based drug delivery systems for improving outcomes in the medical practice of TNBC. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

AIE luminogen labeled polymeric micelles for biological imaging and chemotherapy

In this study, an amphiphilic polymer FA-CS-DBA-CHO with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) feature was prepared by introducing 4-(diphenylamino)benzaldehyde derivative (DBA-CHO), imine bond and folic acid (FA) to the molecular structure of chitosan (CS). The amphiphilicity drove the polymer to self-assemble into micelles, and paclitaxel (PTX) could be solubilized in the hydrophobic core. Due to the excellent AIE effect, FA-CS-DBA-CHO exhibited strong cellular imaging capability. The pH-sensitive imine bond in the polymer allowed for accurate drug release in acidic environment. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that the PTX-loaded FA-CS-DBA-CHO micelles could significantly inhibit the growth of tumor cells but without any notable toxicity. This micellar system was excellent carrier for bioimaging and chemotherapeutic drug delivery.

Recent drug design strategies and identification of key heterocyclic scaffolds for promising anticancer targets

Cancer, a noncommunicable disease, is the leading cause of mortality worldwide and is anticipated to rise by 75% in the next two decades, reaching approximately 25 million cases. Traditional cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy and surgery, have shown limited success in reducing cancer incidence. As a result, the focus of cancer chemotherapy has switched to the development of novel small molecule antitumor agents as an alternate strategy for combating and managing cancer rates. Heterocyclic compounds are such agents that bind to specific residues in target proteins, inhibiting their function and potentially providing cancer treatment. This review focuses on privileged heterocyclic pharmacophores with potent activity against carbonic anhydrases and kinases, which are important anticancer targets. Evaluation of ongoing pre-clinical and clinical research of heterocyclic compounds with potential therapeutic value against a variety of malignancies as well as the provision of a concise summary of the role of heterocyclic scaffolds in various chemotherapy protocols have also been discussed. The main objective of the article is to highlight key heterocyclic scaffolds involved in recent anticancer drug design that demands further attention from the drug development community to find more effective and safer targeted small-molecule anticancer agents.

Development and Optimization of Andrographis paniculata Extract-Loaded Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System Using Experimental Design Model

The objectives of this study were to develop an optimized formulation for an Andrographis paniculata extract (AGPE)-loaded self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) using an experimental design and evaluate the characteristics of the developed SMEDDS. The solubility of andrographolide (AGP) in various solvents was investigated. The pseudo-ternary phase was constructed to provide an optimal range for each component to form microemulsions (MEs). The formulation was optimized using an I-optimal design mixture type, where the physical stability, droplet size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential were examined. Soft capsules of the optimized AGPE-loaded SMEDDS were manufactured. The dissolution and ex vivo membrane permeation were studied. Oleic acid, Tween® 80, and PEG 400 were the best solubilizers for AGP. The promising surfactant to co-surfactant ratio to generate ME was 3:1. The optimized SMEDDS contained 68.998% Tween® 80, with 13.257% oleic acid and 17.745% PEG 400. The assayed content of AGP, uniformity of dosage unit, and stability complied with the expected specifications. The dissolution and membrane permeability of AGPE-loaded SMEDDS was significantly improved from the A. paniculata extract (p < 0.05). All in all, the developed optimized AGPE-loaded SMEDDS was proven to contain optimal composition and AGP content where a stable ME could spontaneously be formed with enhanced delivery efficacy.

Recent nanotheranostic approaches in cancer research

Humanity is suffering from cancer which has become a root cause of untimely deaths of individuals around the globe in the recent past. Nanotheranostics integrates therapeutics and diagnostics to monitor treatment response and enhance drug efficacy and safety. We hereby propose to discuss all recent cancer imaging and diagnostic tools, the mechanism of targeting tumor cells, and current nanotheranostic platforms available for cancer. This review discusses various nanotheranostic agents and novel molecular imaging tools like MRI, CT, PET, SPEC, and PAT used for cancer diagnostics. Emphasis is given to gold nanoparticles, silica, liposomes, dendrimers, and metal-based agents. We also highlight the mechanism of targeting the tumor cells, and the limitations of different nanotheranostic agents in the field of research for cancer treatment. Due to the complexity in this area, multifunctional and hybrid nanoparticles functionalized with targeted moieties or anti-cancer drugs show the best feature for theranostics that enables them to work on carrying and delivering active materials to the desired area of the requirement for early detection and diagnosis. Non-invasive imaging techniques have a specificity of receptor binding and internalization processes of the nanosystems within the cancer cells. Nanotheranostics may provide the appropriate medicine at the appropriate dose to the appropriate patient at the appropriate time.

Sulfur dioxide-releasing polymeric micelles based on modified hyaluronic acid for combined cancer therapy

In this study, an amphiphilic polymer mPEG-HA(SA)-DNs was designed and synthesized to fabricate a multifunctional micellar system to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and reduce the toxic effect of paclitaxel (PTX). The polymer was prepared by introducing mPEG, stearic acid (SA) and 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (DNs) to the backbone of hyaluronic acid (HA). With above modifications, the fabricated micelles could encapsulate PTX in the core with high drug loading. The optimized PTX-loaded micelles had a mean size of 158.3 nm. Upon the effect of mPEG, the mPEG-HA(SA)-DNs micelles reduced the non-specific protein adsorption. In vitro drug release study revealed the excellent glutathione (GSH)-triggered PTX release behavior of the micelles. Moreover, GSH could trigger the detachment of DNs segment from mPEG-HA(SA)-DNs, and result in the release of SO2. In vitro and in vivo antitumor efficacy studies demonstrated that the PTX-loaded mPEG-HA(SA)-DNs micelles exhibited outstanding tumor suppression effect. The micelles would be potential carriers for combination cancer therapy by SO2 and PTX.

ROS/pH dual-sensitive emodin-chlorambucil co-loaded micelles enhance anti-tumor effect through combining oxidative damage and chemotherapy

The high level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at the tumor site has been widely used in the tumor targeted delivery. However, the ROS stimulus-responsive vector itself is also a ROS consumer, and the consumption of endogenous ROS may not be sufficient to maintain sustained drug release. In this study, we designed and synthesized ROS/pH dual-sensitive polymer micelles for the co-delivery of emodin (EMD) and chlorambucil (CLB). The release of quinone methides (QM) can consume glutathione (GSH), on the one hand, it can enhance the chemotoxicity of phenylbutyrate nitrogen mustard, on the other hand, emodin can induce oxidative damage of tumor cells and maintain the sustained targeted release of drugs.

Nanoparticle-based materials in anticancer drug delivery: Current and future prospects

The past decade has witnessed a breakthrough in novel strategies to treat cancer. One of the most common cancer treatment modalities is chemotherapy which involves administering anti-cancer drugs to the body. However, these drugs can lead to undesirable side effects on healthy cells. To overcome this challenge and improve cancer cell targeting, many novel nanocarriers have been developed to deliver drugs directly to the cancerous cells and minimize effects on the healthy tissues. The majority of the research studies conclude that using drugs encapsulated in nanocarriers is a much safer and more effective alternative than delivering the drug alone in its free form. This review provides a summary of the types of nanocarriers mainly studied for cancer drug delivery, namely: liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, magnetic nanoparticles, mesoporous nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and quantum dots. In this review, the synthesis, applications, advantages, disadvantages, and previous studies of these nanomaterials are discussed in detail. Furthermore, the future opportunities and possible challenges of translating these materials into clinical applications are also reported.

Recent Progress in Nanotechnology Improving the Therapeutic Potential of Polyphenols for Cancer

Polyphenols derived from fruits, vegetables, and plants are bioactive compounds potentially beneficial to human health. Notably, compounds such as quercetin, curcumin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and resveratrol have been highlighted as antiproliferative agents for cancer. Due to their low solubility and limited bioavailability, some alternative nanotechnologies have been applied to encapsulate these compounds, aiming to improve their efficacy against cancer. In this comprehensive review, we evaluate the main nanotechnology approaches to improve the therapeutic potential of polyphenols against cancer using in vitro studies and in vivo preclinical models, highlighting recent advancements in the field. It was found that polymeric nanomaterials, lipid-based nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, and carbon-based nanomaterials are the most used classes of nanocarriers for encapsulating polyphenols. These delivery systems exhibit enhanced antitumor activity and pro-apoptotic effects, particularly against breast, lung, prostate, cervical, and colorectal cancer cells, surpassing the performance of free bioactive compounds. Preclinical trials in xenograft animal models have revealed decreased tumor growth after treatment with polyphenol-loaded delivery systems. Moreover, the interaction of polyphenol co-delivery systems and polyphenol-drug delivery systems is a promising approach to increase anticancer activity and decrease chemotherapy side effects. These innovative approaches hold significant implications for the advancement of clinical cancer research.

Design of Dual-Targeted pH-Sensitive Hybrid Polymer Micelles for Breast Cancer Treatment: Three Birds with One Stone

Breast cancer has a high prevalence in the world and creates a substantial socio-economic impact. Polymer micelles used as nano-sized polymer therapeutics have shown great advantages in treating breast cancer. Here, we aim to develop a dual-targeted pH-sensitive hybrid polymer (HPPF) micelles for improving the stability, controlled-release ability and targeting ability of the breast cancer treatment options. The HPPF micelles were constructed using the hyaluronic acid modified polyhistidine (HA-PHis) and folic acid modified Plannick (PF127-FA), which were characterized via ¹H NMR. The optimized mixing ratio (HA-PHis:PF127-FA) was 8:2 according to the change of particle size and zeta potential. The stability of HPPF micelles were enhanced with the higher zeta potential and lower critical micelle concentration compared with HA-PHis and PF127-FA. The drug release percents significantly increased from 45% to 90% with the decrease in pH, which illustrated that HPPF micelles were pH-sensitive owing to the protonation of PHis. The cytotoxicity, in vitro cellular uptake and in vivo fluorescence imaging experiments showed that HPPF micelles had the highest targeting ability utilizing FA and HA, compared with HA-PHis and PF127-FA. Thus, this study constructs an innovative nano-scaled drug delivery system, which provides a new strategy for the treatment of breast cancer.

Folate modified dual pH/reduction-responsive mixed micelles assembled using FA-PEG-PDEAEMA and PEG-SS-PCL for doxorubicin delivery

Aiming at achieving the concurrent performances of high loading, well controlled release and active targeted delivery, folate (FA) modified dual pH/reduction-responsive mixed polymeric micelles were rationally assembled using FA-PEG-PDEAEMA and PEG-SS-PCL by dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. The optimized polymers PEG₁₁₂-PDEAEMA₄₀, FA-PEG₁₁₂-PDEAEMA₄₀, and PEG₁₁₂-SS-PCL₇₀ were synthesized and characterized using ¹H NMR, FT-IR and GPC, and their mixed micelles were applied for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery. The drug loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) values of the MIX1 (FA-PEG₁₁₂-PDEAEMA₄₀/PEG₁₁₂-SS-PCL₇₀) at a DOX/polymer feeding ratio of 15 mg/30 mg were 20.22% and 50.69%, which were higher than those of single polymer micelles and MIX2 (PEG₁₁₂-PDEAEMA₄₀/PEG₁₁₂-SS-PCL₇₀). Particle size distributions, mesoscopic morphologies, DPD simulations and in vitro drug release profiles all confirmed the well-controlled release performance of the DOX-loaded micelles formed by MIX1: slow DOX release with a cumulative release of 20.46% in the neutral environment and accelerated release with a cumulative release of 74.20% at pH 5.0 + 10 mM DTT within 120 h, which were similar to those of MIX2. Cytotoxicity assay found that both MIX1 and MIX2 blank micelles were biocompatible, and a superior inhibitory effect of the FA-modified DOX-loaded micelles MIX1 on HepG2 cells was found compared to that of free DOX and non-FA-modified DOX-loaded micelles MIX2. All of these confirmed the superiority of MIX1 micelles with high loading capacity, well controlled release, and enhanced inhibitory effects on HepG2 cells, which might be a prospective candidate for anticancer drug delivery.

Polymeric Micellar Systems-A Special Emphasis on "Smart" Drug Delivery

Concurrent developments in anticancer nanotechnological treatments have been observed as the burden of cancer increases every year. The 21st century has seen a transformation in the study of medicine thanks to the advancement in the field of material science and nanomedicine. Improved drug delivery systems with proven efficacy and fewer side effects have been made possible. Nanoformulations with varied functions are being created using lipids, polymers, and inorganic and peptide-based nanomedicines. Therefore, thorough knowledge of these intelligent nanomedicines is crucial for developing very promising drug delivery systems. Polymeric micelles are often simple to make and have high solubilization characteristics; as a result, they seem to be a promising alternative to other nanosystems. Even though recent studies have provided an overview of polymeric micelles, here we included a discussion on the "intelligent" drug delivery from these systems. We also summarized the state-of-the-art and the most recent developments of polymeric micellar systems with respect to cancer treatments. Additionally, we gave significant attention to the clinical translation potential of polymeric micellar systems in the treatment of various cancers.

Polymeric micelles as potent islet amyloid inhibitors: current advances and future perspectives

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become one of the most prevalent diseases across the globe, mainly because of the inability of existing treatment strategies to target its root cause (i.e., pancreatic β cell damage). Polymeric micelles (PMs) have gained attention as a treatment option for DM by targeting misfolded islet amyloid polypeptide protein (IAPP), which is common in more than 90% of patients with DM patients. Such misfolding could result from either oxidative stress or mutation in the gene encoding IAPP. In this review, we discuss progress in the design of PMs to halt islet amyloidosis along with their mechanism and dynamics of interactions with IAPP. We also discuss the clinical challenges associated with the translation of PMs as anti-islet amyloidogenic agents. Teaser: Polymeric micelles are able to target misfolding of islet amyloid polypeptide protein in the pancreas owing to their amphiphilic properties and could help protect against β cell damage, thereby offering effective management of diabetes mellitus.

Recoding of Nonsense Mutation as a Pharmacological Strategy

Approximately 11% of genetic human diseases are caused by nonsense mutations that introduce a premature termination codon (PTC) into the coding sequence. The PTC results in the production of a potentially harmful shortened polypeptide and activation of a nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway. The NMD pathway reduces the burden of unproductive protein synthesis by lowering the level of PTC mRNA. There is an endogenous rescue mechanism that produces a full-length protein from a PTC mRNA. Nonsense suppression therapies aim to increase readthrough, suppress NMD, or are a combination of both strategies. Therefore, treatment with translational readthrough-inducing drugs (TRIDs) and NMD inhibitors may increase the effectiveness of PTC suppression. Here we discuss the mechanism of PTC readthrough and the development of novel approaches to PTC suppression. We also discuss the toxicity and bioavailability of therapeutics used to stimulate PTC readthrough.

Expanding Arsenal against Neurodegenerative Diseases Using Quercetin Based Nanoformulations: Breakthroughs and Bottlenecks

Quercetin (Qu), a dietary flavonoid, is obtained from many fruits and vegetables such as coriander, broccoli, capers, asparagus, onion, figs, radish leaves, cranberry, walnuts, and citrus fruits. It has proven its role as a nutraceutical owing to numerous pharmacological effects against various diseases in preclinical studies. Despite these facts, Qu and its nanoparticles are less explored in clinical research as a nutraceutical. The present review covers various neuroprotective actions of Qu against various neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. A literature search was conducted to systematically review the various mechanistic pathways through which Qu elicits its neuroprotective actions and the challenges associated with raw Qu that compromise therapeutic efficacy. The nanoformulations developed to enhance Qu's therapeutic efficacy are also covered. Various ongoing/completed clinical trials related to Qu in treating various diseases, including NDs, are also tabulated. Despite these many successes, the exploration of research on Qu-loaded nanoformulations is limited mostly to preclinical studies, probably due to poor drug loading and stability of the formulation, time-consuming steps involved in the formulation, and their poor scale-up capacity. Hence, future efforts are required in this area to reach Qu nanoformulations to the clinical level.

Multifunctional Polymeric Micelles for Cancer Therapy

Polymeric micelles, nanosized assemblies of amphiphilic polymers with a core-shell architecture, have been used as carriers for various therapeutic compounds. They have gained attention due to specific properties such as their capacity to solubilize poorly water-soluble drugs, biocompatibility, and the ability to accumulate in tumor via enhanced permeability and retention (EPR). Moreover, additional functionality can be provided to the micelles by a further modification. For example, micelle surface modification with targeting ligands allows a specific targeting and enhanced tumor accumulation. The introduction of stimuli-sensitive groups leads to the drug's release in response to environment change. This review highlights the progress in the development of multifunctional polymeric micelles in the field of cancer therapy. This review will also cover some examples of multifunctional polymeric micelles that are applied for tumor imaging and theragnosis.

Role of nucleic acid-based polymeric micelles in treating lung diseases

The prevalence of lung diseases is increasing year by year and existing drug therapies only provide symptomatic relief rather than targeting the actual cause. Nucleic acids can be used as an alternative therapeutic approach owing to their potential to reform a homeostatic balance by upregulating protective genes or downregulating damaging genes. However, their inherent properties, such as poor stability, ineffective cellular uptake, negative charge and so on, hinder their clinical utility. Such limitations can be overcome by exploiting the functional chemistry of polymeric micelles (PMs) for site-specific delivery, transfection efficiency and improved stability. With this objective, the present work describes the advancements made in designing nucleic acid-based PMs for treating lung diseases followed by approaches requiring consideration for clinical applications.

Andrographis paniculata Dosage Forms and Advances in Nanoparticulate Delivery Systems: An Overview

Andrographis paniculata is a well-known Asian medicinal plant with a major phytoconstituent of diterpene lactones, such as andrographolide, 14-deoxyandrographolide, and neoandrographolide. A World Health Organization (WHO) monograph on selected medicinal plants showed that A. paniculata extracts and its major diterpene lactones have promising anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antimalarial, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, and hypoglycemic activities. However, these active phytochemicals have poor water solubility and bioavailability when delivered in a conventional dosage form. These biological barriers can be mitigated if the extract or isolated compound are delivered as nanoparticles. This review discusses existing studies and marketed products of A. paniculata in solid, liquid, semi-solid, and gaseous dosage forms, either as an extract or isolated pure compounds, as well as their deficits in reaching maximum bioavailability. The pharmaceutics and pharmacological activity of A. paniculata as a nano-delivery system are also discussed.

Application of nanotechnology in the early diagnosis and comprehensive treatment of gastrointestinal cancer

Gastrointestinal cancer (GIC) is a common malignant tumour of the digestive system that seriously threatens human health. Due to the unique organ structure of the gastrointestinal tract, endoscopic and MRI diagnoses of GIC in the clinic share the problem of low sensitivity. The ineffectiveness of drugs and high recurrence rates in surgical and drug therapies are the main factors that impact the curative effect in GIC patients. Therefore, there is an urgent need to improve diagnostic accuracies and treatment efficiencies. Nanotechnology is widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of GIC by virtue of its unique size advantages and extensive modifiability. In the diagnosis and treatment of clinical GIC, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoparticles, electrochemical nanobiosensors and magnetic nanoparticles, intraoperative imaging nanoparticles, drug delivery systems and other multifunctional nanoparticles have successfully improved the diagnosis and treatment of GIC. It is important to further improve the coordinated development of nanotechnology and GIC diagnosis and treatment. Herein, starting from the clinical diagnosis and treatment of GIC, this review summarizes which nanotechnologies have been applied in clinical diagnosis and treatment of GIC in recent years, and which cannot be applied in clinical practice. We also point out which challenges must be overcome by nanotechnology in the development of the clinical diagnosis and treatment of GIC and discuss how to quickly and safely combine the latest nanotechnology developed in the laboratory with clinical applications. Finally, we hope that this review can provide valuable reference information for researchers who are conducting cross-research on GIC and nanotechnology.

Anticancer Drugs: Recent Strategies to Improve Stability Profile, Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties

In past decades, anticancer research has led to remarkable results despite many of the approved drugs still being characterized by high systemic toxicity mainly due to the lack of tumor selectivity and present pharmacokinetic drawbacks, including low water solubility, that negatively affect the drug circulation time and bioavailability. The stability studies, performed in mild conditions during their development or under stressing exposure to high temperature, hydrolytic medium or light source, have demonstrated the sensitivity of anticancer drugs to many parameters. For this reason, the formation of degradation products is assessed both in pharmaceutical formulations and in the environment as hospital waste. To date, numerous formulations have been developed for achieving tissue-specific drug targeting and reducing toxic side effects, as well as for improving drug stability. The development of prodrugs represents a promising strategy in targeted cancer therapy for improving the selectivity, efficacy and stability of active compounds. Recent studies show that the incorporation of anticancer drugs into vesicular systems, such as polymeric micelles or cyclodextrins, or the use of nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics that conjugate to monoclonal antibodies can improve solubility, pharmacokinetics, cellular absorption and stability. In this study, we summarize the latest advances in knowledge regarding the development of effective highly stable anticancer drugs formulated as stable prodrugs or entrapped in nanosystems.

New Advances in Biomedical Application of Polymeric Micelles

In the last decade, nanomedicine has arisen as an emergent area of medicine, which studies nanometric systems, namely polymeric micelles (PMs), that increase the solubility and the stability of the encapsulated drugs. Furthermore, their application in dermal drug delivery is also relevant. PMs present unique characteristics because of their unique core-shell architecture. They are colloidal dispersions of amphiphilic compounds, which self-assemble in an aqueous medium, giving a structure-type core-shell, with a hydrophobic core (that can encapsulate hydrophobic drugs), and a hydrophilic shell, which works as a stabilizing agent. These features offer PMs adequate steric protection and determine their hydrophilicity, charge, length, and surface density properties. Furthermore, due to their small size, PMs can be absorbed by the intestinal mucosa with the drug, and they transport the drug in the bloodstream until the therapeutic target. Moreover, PMs improve the pharmacokinetic profile of the encapsulated drug, present high load capacity, and are synthesized by a reproducible, easy, and low-cost method. In silico approaches have been explored to improve the physicochemical properties of PMs. Based on this, a computer-aided strategy was developed and validated to enable the delivery of poorly soluble drugs and established critical physicochemical parameters to maximize drug loading, formulation stability, and tumor exposure. Poly(2-oxazoline) (POx)-based PMs display unprecedented high loading concerning water-insoluble drugs and over 60 drugs have been incorporated in POx PMs. Among various stimuli, pH and temperature are the most widely studied for enhanced drug release at the site of action. Researchers are focusing on dual (pH and temperature) responsive PMs for controlled and improved drug release at the site of action. These dual responsive systems are mainly evaluated for cancer therapy as certain malignancies can cause a slight increase in temperature and a decrease in the extracellular pH around the tumor site. This review is a compilation of updated therapeutic applications of PMs, such as PMs that are based on Pluronics^®, micelleplexes and Pox-based PMs in several biomedical applications.

Polymeric micelles loaded with glyburide and vanillic acid: I. Formulation development, in-vitro characterization and bioavailability studies

The co-formulation of glyburide (Gly) and vanillic acid (VA) as such in the form of nanomedicine has never been explored to treat metabolic diseases including type 2 diabetes mellitus. Both the drugs possess dissolution rate-limited oral bioavailability leading to poor therapeutic efficacy. Hence, co-loading these drugs into a nanocarrier could overcome their poor oral bioavailability related challenges. Owing to this objective, both drugs were co-loaded in amphiphilic polymeric micelles (APMs) and evaluated for their biopharmaceutical outcomes. The APMs were prepared using mPEG-b-PCL/CTAB as a copolymer-surfactant system via the liquid antisolvent precipitation (LAP) method. The design of these APMs were optimized using Box Behnken Design by taking various process/formulation based variables to achieve the desired micellar traits. The release of both the drugs from the optimized co-loaded APMs was compared in different media and displayed a remarkable sustained release profile owing to their hydrophobic interactions with the PCL core. The in vitro cytotoxicity study of co-loaded APMs on Caco-2 cells revealed 70 % cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner. The preventive effects of Gly and VA co-loaded in APMs on glucose uptake was studied in insulin-responsive human HepG2 cells treated with high glucose. The co-loading of both the drugs in optimized APMs exhibited synergistic glucose-lowering activity (p < 0.001) than raw drugs with low cytotoxicity on HepG2 cells within the test concentration. This could be attributed to an increase in the relative oral bioavailability of both the drugs in APMs i.e., 868 % for Gly and 87 % for VA respectively.

Biomedical Applications of polymeric micelles in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: Current success and future approaches

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most common metabolic disease and multifactorial, harming patients worldwide. Extensive research has been carried out in the search for novel drug delivery systems offering reliable control of glucose levels for diabetics, aiming at efficient management of DM.

AREAS COVERED

Polymeric micelles (PMs) as smart drug delivery nanocarriers are discussed, focusing on oral drug delivery applications for the management of hyperglycemia. The most recent approaches used for the preparation of smart PMs employ molecular features of amphiphilic block copolymers (ABCs), such as stimulus sensitivity, ligand conjugation, and as a more specific example the ability to inhibit islet amyloidosis.

EXPERT OPINION

PMs provide a unique platform for self-regulated or spatiotemporal drug delivery, mimicking the working mode of pancreatic islets to maintain glucose homeostasis for prolonged periods. This unique characteristic is achieved by tailoring the functional chemistry of ABCs considering the physicochemical traits of PMs, including sensing capabilities, hydrophobicity, etc. In addition, the application of ABCs for the inhibition of conformational changes in islet amyloid polypeptide garnered attention as one of the root causes of DM. However, research in this field is limited and further studies at the clinical level are required.