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Summers BS, Thomas Broome S, Pang TWR, Mundell HD, Koh Belic N, Tom NC, Ng ML, Yap M, Sen MK, Sedaghat S, Weible MW, Castorina A, Lim CK, Lovelace MD, Brew BJ. A Review of the Evidence for Tryptophan and the Kynurenine Pathway as a Regulator of Stem Cell Niches in Health and Disease. Int J Tryptophan Res 2024; 17:11786469241248287. [PMID: 38757094 PMCID: PMC11097742 DOI: 10.1177/11786469241248287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Stem cells are ubiquitously found in various tissues and organs in the body, and underpin the body's ability to repair itself following injury or disease initiation, though repair can sometimes be compromised. Understanding how stem cells are produced, and functional signaling systems between different niches is critical to understanding the potential use of stem cells in regenerative medicine. In this context, this review considers kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolism in multipotent adult progenitor cells, embryonic, haematopoietic, neural, cancer, cardiac and induced pluripotent stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, and mesenchymal stromal cells. The KP is the major enzymatic pathway for sequentially catabolising the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP), resulting in key metabolites including kynurenine, kynurenic acid, and quinolinic acid (QUIN). QUIN metabolism transitions into the adjoining de novo pathway for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) production, a critical cofactor in many fundamental cellular biochemical pathways. How stem cells uptake and utilise TRP varies between different species and stem cell types, because of their expression of transporters and responses to inflammatory cytokines. Several KP metabolites are physiologically active, with either beneficial or detrimental outcomes, and evidence of this is presented relating to several stem cell types, which is important as they may exert a significant impact on surrounding differentiated cells, particularly if they metabolise or secrete metabolites differently. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in mesenchymal stromal cells, for instance, highly upregulates rate-limiting enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO-1), initiating TRP depletion and production of metabolites including kynurenine/kynurenic acid, known agonists of the Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) transcription factor. AhR transcriptionally regulates an immunosuppressive phenotype, making them attractive for regenerative therapy. We also draw attention to important gaps in knowledge for future studies, which will underpin future application for stem cell-based cellular therapies or optimising drugs which can modulate the KP in innate stem cell populations, for disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Sebastian Summers
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St. Vincent’s Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sarah Thomas Broome
- Faculty of Science, Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Hamish D Mundell
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, New South Wales Brain Tissue Resource Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Naomi Koh Belic
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nicole C Tom
- Formerly of the Department of Physiology, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Mei Li Ng
- Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Maylin Yap
- Formerly of the Atherothrombosis and Vascular Biology Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Monokesh K Sen
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St. Vincent’s Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, NSW, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sara Sedaghat
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Michael W Weible
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Alessandro Castorina
- Faculty of Science, Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Chai K Lim
- Faculty of Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael D Lovelace
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St. Vincent’s Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Bruce J Brew
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St. Vincent’s Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Departments of Neurology and Immunology, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- University of Notre Dame, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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León-Letelier RA, Dou R, Vykoukal J, Sater AHA, Ostrin E, Hanash S, Fahrmann JF. The kynurenine pathway presents multi-faceted metabolic vulnerabilities in cancer. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1256769. [PMID: 37876966 PMCID: PMC10591110 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1256769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway (KP) and associated catabolites play key roles in promoting tumor progression and modulating the host anti-tumor immune response. To date, considerable focus has been on the role of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) and its catabolite, kynurenine (Kyn). However, increasing evidence has demonstrated that downstream KP enzymes and their associated metabolite products can also elicit tumor-microenvironment immune suppression. These advancements in our understanding of the tumor promotive role of the KP have led to the conception of novel therapeutic strategies to target the KP pathway for anti-cancer effects and reversal of immune escape. This review aims to 1) highlight the known biological functions of key enzymes in the KP, and 2) provide a comprehensive overview of existing and emerging therapies aimed at targeting discrete enzymes in the KP for anti-cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo A. León-Letelier
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Rongzhang Dou
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Jody Vykoukal
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Ali Hussein Abdel Sater
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Edwin Ostrin
- Department of General Internal Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Samir Hanash
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Johannes F. Fahrmann
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
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3
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Elson DJ, Nguyen BD, Korjeff NA, Wilferd SF, Puig-Sanvicens V, Sang Jang H, Bernales S, Chakravarty S, Belmar S, Ureta G, Finlay D, Plaisier CL, Kolluri SK. Suppression of Ah Receptor (AhR) increases the aggressiveness of TNBC cells and 11-Cl-BBQ-activated AhR inhibits their growth. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 215:115706. [PMID: 37506922 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents around 15% of the 2.26 million breast cancers diagnosed worldwide annually and has the worst outcome. Despite recent therapeutic advances, there remains a lack of targeted therapies for this breast cancer subtype. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor with biological roles in regulating development, xenobiotic metabolism, cell cycle progression and cell death. AhR activation by select ligands can promote tumor suppression in multiple cancer types. AhR can negatively regulate the activity of different oncogenic signaling pathways and can directly upregulate tumor suppressor genes such as p27Kip1. To determine the role of AhR in TNBC, we generated AhR-deficient cancer cells and investigated the impact of AhR loss on TNBC cell growth phenotypes. We found that AhR-deficient MDA-MB-468 TNBC cells have increased proliferation and formed significantly more colonies compared to AhR expressing cells. These cells without AhR expression grew aggressively in vivo. To determine the molecular targets driving this phenotype, we performed transcriptomic profiling in AhR expressing and AhR knockout MDA-MB-468 cells and identified tyrosine receptor kinases, as well as other genes involved in proliferation, survival and clonogenicity that are repressed by AhR. In order to determine therapeutic targeting of AhR in TNBC, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of the novel AhR ligand 11-chloro-7H-benzimidazo[2,1-a]benzo[de]iso-quinolin-7-one (11-Cl-BBQ), which belongs to a class of high affinity, rapidly metabolized AhR ligands called benzimidazoisoquinolines (BBQs). 11-Cl-BBQ induced AhR-dependent cancer cell-selective growth inhibition and strongly inhibited colony formation in TNBC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Elson
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Bach D Nguyen
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Nicholas A Korjeff
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Sierra F Wilferd
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Veronica Puig-Sanvicens
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Hyo Sang Jang
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Sebastian Bernales
- Praxis Biotech, San Francisco, CA 94158, United States; Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Centro Científico y Tecnológico Ciencia & Vida, Avda. Del valle Norte 725, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Sebastián Belmar
- Praxis Biotech, San Francisco, CA 94158, United States; Merken Biotech, Avda. Del valle Norte 725, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gonzalo Ureta
- Praxis Biotech, San Francisco, CA 94158, United States; Merken Biotech, Avda. Del valle Norte 725, Santiago, Chile
| | - Darren Finlay
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, NCI Designated Cancer Center, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Christopher L Plaisier
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Siva K Kolluri
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States; Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States.
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Girithar HN, Staats Pires A, Ahn SB, Guillemin GJ, Gluch L, Heng B. Involvement of the kynurenine pathway in breast cancer: updates on clinical research and trials. Br J Cancer 2023; 129:185-203. [PMID: 37041200 PMCID: PMC10338682 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-023-02245-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BrCa) is the leading cause of cancer incidence and mortality in women worldwide. While BrCa treatment has been shown to be highly successful if detected at an early stage, there are few effective strategies to treat metastatic tumours. Hence, metastasis remains the main cause in most of BrCa deaths, highlighting the need for new approaches in this group of patients. Immunotherapy has been gaining attention as a new treatment for BrCa metastasis and the kynurenine pathway (KP) has been suggested as one of the potential targets. The KP is the major biochemical pathway in tryptophan (TRP) metabolism, catabolising TRP to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). The KP has been reported to be elevated under inflammatory conditions such as cancers and that its activity suppresses immune surveillance. Dysregulation of the KP has previously been reported implicated in BrCa. This review aims to discuss and provide an update on the current mechanisms involved in KP-mediated immune suppression and cancer growth. Furthermore, we also provide a summary on 58 studies about the involvement of the KP and BrCa and five clinical trials targeting KP enzymes and their outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemaasri-Neya Girithar
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ananda Staats Pires
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Seong Beom Ahn
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Laurence Gluch
- The Strathfield Breast Centre, Strathfield, NSW, Australia
| | - Benjamin Heng
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Plaza-Diaz J, Álvarez-Mercado AI. The Interplay between Microbiota and Chemotherapy-Derived Metabolites in Breast Cancer. Metabolites 2023; 13:703. [PMID: 37367861 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13060703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The most common cancer in women is breast cancer, which is also the second leading cause of death in this group. It is, however, important to note that some women will develop or will not develop breast cancer regardless of whether certain known risk factors are present. On the other hand, certain compounds are produced by bacteria in the gut, such as short-chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids, and other metabolites that may be linked to breast cancer development and mediate the chemotherapy response. Modeling the microbiota through dietary intervention and identifying metabolites directly associated with breast cancer and its complications may be useful to identify actionable targets and improve the effect of antiangiogenic therapies. Metabolomics is therefore a complementary approach to metagenomics for this purpose. As a result of the combination of both techniques, a better understanding of molecular biology and oncogenesis can be obtained. This article reviews recent literature about the influence of bacterial metabolites and chemotherapy metabolites in breast cancer patients, as well as the influence of diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Plaza-Diaz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1, Canada
| | - Ana Isabel Álvarez-Mercado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, 18016 Armilla, Spain
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Huang M, Xue J, Chen Z, Zhou X, Chen M, Sun J, Xu Z, Wang S, Xu H, Du Z, Liu M. MTHFD2 suppresses glioblastoma progression via the inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Biochem Cell Biol 2023; 101:112-124. [PMID: 36493392 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2022-0291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a WHO grade 4 tumor and is the most malignant form of glioma. Methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase 2 (MTHFD2), a mitochondrial enzyme involved in folate metabolism, has been reported to be highly expressed in several human tumors. However, little is known about the role of MTHFD2 in GBM. In this study, we aimed to explore the biological functions of MTHFD2 in GBM and identify the associated mechanisms. We performed experiments such as immunohistochemistry, Western blot, and transwell assays and found that MTHFD2 expression was lower in high-grade glioma than in low-grade glioma. Furthermore, a high expression of MTHFD2 was associated with a favorable prognosis, and MTHFD2 levels showed good prognostic accuracy for glioma patients. The overexpression of MTHFD2 could inhibit the migration, invasion, and proliferation of GBM cells, whereas its knockdown induced the opposite effect. Mechanistically, our findings revealed that MTHFD2 suppressed GBM progression independent of its enzymatic activity, likely by inducing cytoskeletal remodeling through the regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation, thereby influencing GBM malignance. Collectively, these findings uncover a potential tumor-suppressor role of MTHFD2 in GBM cells. MTHFD2 may act as a promising diagnostic and therapeutic target for GBM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meihui Huang
- Department of Central Laboratory, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiajian Xue
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiming Chen
- Department of Pathology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiao Zhou
- Department of Central Laboratory, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Mantong Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Jianhong Sun
- Department of Pathology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhennan Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Shaohong Wang
- Department of Pathology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Haixiong Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Zepeng Du
- Department of Central Laboratory, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
- Department of Pathology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
| | - Mingfa Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515031, Guangdong, China
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Perez-Castro L, Garcia R, Venkateswaran N, Barnes S, Conacci-Sorrell M. Tryptophan and its metabolites in normal physiology and cancer etiology. FEBS J 2023; 290:7-27. [PMID: 34687129 PMCID: PMC9883803 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Within the growing field of amino acid metabolism, tryptophan (Trp) catabolism is an area of increasing interest. Trp is essential for protein synthesis, and its metabolism gives rise to biologically active catabolites including serotonin and numerous metabolites in the kynurenine (Kyn) pathway. In normal tissues, the production of Trp metabolites is directly regulated by the tissue-specific expression of Trp-metabolizing enzymes. Alterations of these enzymes in cancers can shift the balance and lead to an increased production of specific byproducts that can function as oncometabolites. For example, increased expression of the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, which converts Trp into Kyn, leads to an increase in Kyn levels in numerous cancers. Kyn functions as an oncometabolite in cancer cells by promoting the activity of the transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which regulates progrowth genes. Moreover, Kyn also inhibits T-cell activity and thus allows cancer cells to evade clearance by the immune system. Therefore, targeting the Kyn pathway has become a therapeutic focus as a novel means to abrogate tumor growth and immune resistance. This review summarizes the biological role and regulation of Trp metabolism and its catabolites with an emphasis on tumor cell growth and immune evasion and outlines areas for future research focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizbeth Perez-Castro
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Roy Garcia
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Niranjan Venkateswaran
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Spencer Barnes
- Lyda Hill Department of Bioinformatics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Maralice Conacci-Sorrell
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Harold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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Badawy AB. Tryptophan metabolism and disposition in cancer biology and immunotherapy. Biosci Rep 2022; 42:BSR20221682. [PMID: 36286592 PMCID: PMC9653095 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20221682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumours utilise tryptophan (Trp) and its metabolites to promote their growth and evade host defences. They recruit Trp through up-regulation of Trp transporters, and up-regulate key enzymes of Trp degradation and down-regulate others. Thus, Trp 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), IDO2, N'-formylkynurenine formamidase (FAMID) and Kyn aminotransferase 1 (KAT1) are all up-regulated in many cancer types, whereas Kyn monooxygenase (KMO), kynureninase (KYNU), 2-amino-3-carboxymuconic acid-6-semialdehyde decarboxylase (ACMSD) and quinolinate phosphoribosyltransferase (QPRT) are up-regulated in a few, but down-regulated in many, cancers. This results in accumulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand kynurenic acid and in depriving the host of NAD+ by blocking its synthesis from quinolinic acid. The host loses more NAD+ by up-regulation of the NAD+-consuming poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) and the protein acetylaters SIRTs. The nicotinamide arising from PARP and SIRT activation can be recycled in tumours to NAD+ by the up-regulated key enzymes of the salvage pathway. Up-regulation of the Trp transporters SLC1A5 and SLC7A5 is associated mostly with that of TDO2 = FAMID > KAT1 > IDO2 > IDO1. Tumours down-regulate enzymes of serotonin synthesis, thereby removing competition for Trp from the serotonin pathway. Strategies for combating tumoral immune escape could involve inhibition of Trp transport into tumours, inhibition of TDO and IDOs, inhibition of FAMID, inhibition of KAT and KYNU, inhibition of NMPRT and NMNAT, inhibition of the AhR, IL-4I1, PARPs and SIRTs, and by decreasing plasma free Trp availability to tumours by albumin infusion or antilipolytic agents and inhibition of glucocorticoid induction of TDO by glucocorticoid antagonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulla A.-B. Badawy
- Formerly School of Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Western Avenue, Cardiff CF5 2YB, Wales, U.K
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Bioinformatic Analysis of Kynurenine Pathway Enzymes and Their Relationship with Glioma Hallmarks. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12111054. [PMID: 36355137 PMCID: PMC9699055 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Indoleamine dioxygenase (IDO), a rate limiting enzyme of the tryptophan catabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP), has been related with a lower survival and a poor patient prognosis on several solid tumors, including gliomas. However, the use of IDO inhibitors as a therapeutic strategy for tumor treatment remains controversial in clinical trials and the role of other KP enzymes on tumor progression has remained poorly understood so far. Recently, different studies on different types of cancer have pointed out the importance of KP enzymes downstream IDO. Because of this, we conducted a bioinformatic analysis of the expression of different KP enzymes and their correlation with the gene expression of molecules related to the hallmarks of cancer in transcriptomic datasets from patients with different types of brain tumors including low grade gliomas, glioblastoma multiforme, neuroblastoma, and paraganglioma and pheochromocytoma. We found that KP enzymes that drive to NAD+ synthesis are overexpressed on different brain tumors compared to brain cortex data. Moreover, these enzymes presented positive correlations with the expression of genes related to immune response modulation, angiogenesis, Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) signaling, and Rho GTPase expression. These correlations suggest the relevance of the expression of the KP enzymes in brain tumor pathogenesis.
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10
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Zhang S, Chen S, Wang Z, Li J, Yuan Y, Feng W, Li W, Chen M, Liu Y. Prognosis prediction and tumor immune microenvironment characterization based on tryptophan metabolism-related genes signature in brain glioma. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1061597. [PMID: 36386216 PMCID: PMC9663932 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1061597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioma is the most common malignant tumor in the central nervous system with no significant therapeutic breakthrough in recent years. Most attempts to apply immunotherapy in glioma have failed. Tryptophan and its metabolism can regulate malignant features of cancers and reshape immune microenvironment of tumors. However, the role of tryptophan metabolism in glioma remains unclear. In current study, we explored the relationships between the expression pattern of tryptophan metabolism-related genes (TrMGs) and tumor characteristics, including prognosis and tumor microenvironment of gliomas through analyzing 1,523 patients' samples from multiple public databases and our own cohort. Based on expression of TrMGs, K-means clustering analysis stratified all glioma patients into two clusters with significantly different TrMG expression patterns, clinicopathological features and immune microenvironment. Furthermore, we constructed a tryptophan metabolism-related genes signature (TrMRS) based on seven essential TrMGs to classify the patients into TrMRS low- and high-risk groups and validated the prognostic value of the TrMRS in multiple cohorts. Higher TrMRS represented for potentially more active tryptophan catabolism, which could subsequently lead to less tryptophan in tumor. The TrMRS high-risk group presented with shorter overall survival, and further analysis confirmed TrMRS as an independent prognostic factor in gliomas. The nomograms uniting TrMRS with other prognostic factors manifested with satisfactory efficacy in predicting the prognosis of glioma patients. Additionally, analyses of tumor immune landscapes demonstrated that higher TrMRS was correlated with more immune cell infiltration and "hot" immunological phenotype. TrMRS was also demonstrated to be positively correlated with the expression of multiple immunotherapy targets, including PD1 and PD-L1. Finally, the TrMRS high-risk group manifested better predicted response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. In conclusion, our study illustrated the relationships between expression pattern of TrMGs and characteristics of gliomas, and presented a novel model based on TrMRS for prognosis prediction in glioma patients. The association between TrMRS and tumor immune microenvironment of gliomas indicated an important role of tryptophan and its metabolism in reshaping immune landscape and the potential ability to guide the application of immunotherapy for gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxin Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Siliang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhihao Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Junhong Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chengdu Second People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yunbo Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Wentao Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Wenhao Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Mina Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Neuroscience and Metabolism Research, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yanhui Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Barata IS, Gomes BC, Rodrigues AS, Rueff J, Kranendonk M, Esteves F. The Complex Dynamic of Phase I Drug Metabolism in the Early Stages of Doxorubicin Resistance in Breast Cancer Cells. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:1977. [PMID: 36360213 PMCID: PMC9689592 DOI: 10.3390/genes13111977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The altered activity of drug metabolism enzymes (DMEs) is a hallmark of chemotherapy resistance. Cytochrome P450s (CYPs), mainly CYP3A4, and several oxidoreductases are responsible for Phase I metabolism of doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline widely used in breast cancer (BC) treatment. This study aimed to investigate the role of Phase I DMEs involved in the first stages of acquisition of DOX-resistance in BC cells. For this purpose, the expression of 92 DME genes and specific CYP-complex enzymes activities were assessed in either sensitive (MCF-7 parental cells; MCF-7/DOXS) or DOX-resistant (MCF-7/DOXR) cells. The DMEs genes detected to be significantly differentially expressed in MCF-7/DOXR cells (12 CYPs and eight oxidoreductases) were indicated previously to be involved in tumor progression and/or chemotherapy response. The analysis of CYP-mediated activities suggests a putative enhanced CYP3A4-dependent metabolism in MCF-7/DOXR cells. A discrepancy was observed between CYP-enzyme activities and their corresponding levels of mRNA transcripts. This is indicative that the phenotype of DMEs is not linearly correlated with transcription induction responses, confirming the multifactorial complexity of this mechanism. Our results pinpoint the potential role of specific CYPs and oxidoreductases involved in the metabolism of drugs, retinoic and arachidonic acids, in the mechanisms of chemo-resistance to DOX and carcinogenesis of BC.
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Chen Y, Zhang J, Yang Y, Xiang K, Li H, Sun D, Chen L. Kynurenine‐3‐monooxygenase (KMO): From its biological functions to therapeutic effect in diseases progression. J Cell Physiol 2022; 237:4339-4355. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
| | - Jiahui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
| | - Yueying Yang
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
| | - Ke Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
| | - Hua Li
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
- College of Pharmacy Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Fuzhou China
| | - Dejuan Sun
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
| | - Lixia Chen
- Key Laboratory of Structure‐Based Drug Design & Discovery, Wuya College of Innovation, School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Ministry of Education Shenyang Pharmaceutical University Shenyang China
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Characterization of the Metabolome of Breast Tissues from Non-Hispanic Black and Non-Hispanic White Women Reveals Correlations between Microbial Dysbiosis and Enhanced Lipid Metabolism Pathways in Triple-Negative Breast Tumors. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14174075. [PMID: 36077608 PMCID: PMC9454857 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14174075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary We previously showed that breast tumor tissues from women display an imbalance in abundance and composition of microbiota compared to normal healthy breast tissues. It is unknown whether these differences in breast tumor microbiota may be driven by alterations in microbial metabolites, leading to potentially protective or pathogenic consequences. The aim of our study was to conduct global metabolic profiling on normal and breast tumor tissues to identify differences in metabolite profiles and to determine whether breast microbial dysbiosis may be associated with enrichment of microbial metabolites in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) which disproportionately affects women of African ancestry. We observed significant correlations between elevated lipid metabolism pathways and microbial dysbiosis in TNBC tissues from both non-Hispanic black and white women. This is the first study to report an association between breast microbial dysbiosis and alterations in host metabolic pathways in breast tumors, including TNBC, of non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white women. Abstract Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive form of breast cancer that is non-responsive to hormonal therapies and disproportionately impact women of African ancestry. We previously showed that TN breast tumors have a distinct microbial signature that differs from less aggressive breast tumor subtypes and normal breast tissues. However, it is unknown whether these differences in breast tumor microbiota may be driven by alterations in microbial metabolites, leading to potentially protective or pathogenic consequences. The goal of this global metabolomic profiling study was to investigate alterations in microbial metabolism pathways in normal and breast tumor tissues, including TNBC, of non-Hispanic black (NHB) and non-Hispanic white (NHW) women. In this study, we profiled the microbiome (16S rRNA) from breast tumor tissues and analyzed 984 metabolites from a total of 51 NHB and NHW women. Breast tumor tissues were collected from 15 patients with TNBC, 12 patients with less aggressive luminal A-type (Luminal) breast cancer, and 24 healthy controls for comparison using UHPLC-tandem mass spectrometry. Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering of the global metabolomic profiling data revealed separation between metabolic signatures of normal and breast tumor tissues. Random forest analysis revealed a unique biochemical signature associated with elevated lipid metabolites and lower levels of microbial-derived metabolites important in controlling inflammation and immune responses in breast tumor tissues. Significant relationships between the breast microbiome and the metabolome, particularly lipid metabolism, were observed in TNBC tissues. Further investigations to determine whether alterations in sphingolipid, phospholipid, ceramide, amino acid, and energy metabolism pathways modulate Fusobacterium and Tenericutes abundance and composition to alter host metabolism in TNBC are necessary to help us understand the risk and underlying mechanisms and to identify potential microbial-based targets.
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Cecchi M, Mannini A, Lapucci A, Silvano A, Lulli M, Luceri C, D’Ambrosio M, Chiarugi A, Eid AH, Parenti A. Dexamethasone Promotes a Stem-Like Phenotype in Human Melanoma Cells via Tryptophan 2,3 Dioxygenase. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:911019. [PMID: 35847038 PMCID: PMC9280025 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.911019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to its well-established immunosuppressive actions, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) appears to elicit direct effects on tumor cell function. Although TDO has been associated with cancer stemness, its involvement in melanoma stem cell biology remains largely unknown. Since we showed that by upregulating TDO, dexamethasone (dex) promotes proliferation and migration of SK-Mel-28 human melanoma cells, we sought to investigate dex effects on melanoma spherogenesis and stemness, and whether these events are mediated by TDO. We demonstrate here that dex significantly upregulates TDO in A375, a more aggressive melanoma cell line, confirming that dex effects are not limited to SK-Mel-28 cells. Moreover, dex stimulates spherogenesis of both cell lines, which is mediated by TDO, evident by its suppression with 680C91, a TDO inhibitor. The formed melanospheres appear to be enriched with embryonic stem cell marker mRNAs, the expression of which is potentiated by dex. Expression of cancer stem cell markers (CD133, CD44, ganglioside GD2) was significantly increased in A375 spheres, as detected by flow cytometry. Taken together, our results suggest that TDO could represent a promising target in the management of melanoma and that dex, routinely used as a co-medication also in advanced melanoma, may stimulate melanoma cell function/tumor-supporting properties, a rather debilitating and undesired side effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cecchi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Neurofarba, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Antonella Mannini
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Internal Medicine Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Andrea Lapucci
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Angela Silvano
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Matteo Lulli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences “Mario Serio”, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Cristina Luceri
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Neurofarba, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Mario D’Ambrosio
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Neurofarba, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alberto Chiarugi
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Ali H. Eid
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Qatar University, QU Health, Doha, Qatar
- *Correspondence: Ali H. Eid, ; Astrid Parenti,
| | - Astrid Parenti
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- *Correspondence: Ali H. Eid, ; Astrid Parenti,
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The Kynurenine Pathway and Cancer: Why Keep It Simple When You Can Make It Complicated. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14112793. [PMID: 35681770 PMCID: PMC9179486 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14112793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The kynurenine pathway has two main physiological roles: (i) it protects specific organs such as the eyes and placenta from strong immune reactions and (ii) it additionally generate in the liver and kidney a metabolite essential to all cells of human body. Abnormal activation of this pathway is recurrently observed in numerous cancer types. Its two functions are hijacked to promote tumor growth and cancer cell dissemination through multiple mechanisms. Clinical assays including administration of inhibitors of this pathway have not yet been successful. The complex regulation of this pathway is likely the reason behind this failure. In this review, we try to give an overview of the current knowledge about this pathway, to point out the next challenges, and to propose alternative therapeutic routes. Abstract The kynurenine pathway has been highlighted as a gatekeeper of immune-privileged sites through its ability to generate from tryptophan a set of immunosuppressive metabolic intermediates. It additionally constitutes an important source of cellular NAD+ for the organism. Hijacking of its immunosuppressive functions, as recurrently observed in multiple cancers, facilitates immune evasion and promotes tumor development. Based on these observations, researchers have focused on characterizing indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1), the main enzyme catalyzing the first and limiting step of the pathway, and on developing therapies targeting it. Unfortunately, clinical trials studying IDO1 inhibitors have thus far not met expectations, highlighting the need to unravel this complex signaling pathway further. Recent advances demonstrate that these metabolites additionally promote tumor growth, metastatic dissemination and chemoresistance by a combination of paracrine and autocrine effects. Production of NAD+ also contributes to cancer progression by providing cancer cells with enhanced plasticity, invasive properties and chemoresistance. A comprehensive survey of this complexity is challenging but necessary to achieve medical success.
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Zhao J, Chen J, Wang C, Liu Y, Li M, Li Y, Li R, Han Z, Wang J, Chen L, Shu Y, Cheng G, Sun C. Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO) broadly inhibits viral infections via triggering NMDAR/Ca2+ influx and CaMKII/ IRF3-mediated IFN-β production. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010366. [PMID: 35235615 PMCID: PMC8920235 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan (Trp) metabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP) is well known to play a critical function in cancer, autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. However, its role in host-pathogen interactions has not been characterized yet. Herein, we identified that kynurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO), a key rate-limiting enzyme in the KP, and quinolinic acid (QUIN), a key enzymatic product of KMO enzyme, exerted a novel antiviral function against a broad range of viruses. Mechanistically, QUIN induced the production of type I interferon (IFN-I) via activating the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and Ca2+ influx to activate Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)/interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3). Importantly, QUIN treatment effectively inhibited viral infections and alleviated disease progression in mice. Furthermore, kmo-/- mice were vulnerable to pathogenic viral challenge with severe clinical symptoms. Collectively, our results demonstrated that KMO and its enzymatic product QUIN were potential therapeutics against emerging pathogenic viruses. The outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases have become a severe challenge worldwide, and therefore it is a public health priority to explore novel broad-spectrum antiviral agents with various mechanisms. This study reported that kynurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO), a key rate-limiting enzyme during tryptophan metabolism, showed promise as a novel broad-spectrum antiviral factor against emerging pathogenic viruses. We further found that quinolinic acid (QUIN), an enzymatic product of KMO, could also act as a novel broad-spectrum antiviral agent. We then systematically studied the underlying mechanisms and broadly antiviral function of KMO and QUIN in vitro and in vivo. Our data highlight the importance of exploring novel antiviral targets from the key enzymes and their metabolites in tryptophan metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhao
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiaoshan Chen
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Congcong Wang
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yajie Liu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Minchao Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanjun Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiting Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zirong Han
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junjian Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Design and Evaluation, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health (GIBH), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuelong Shu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Genhong Cheng
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (GC); (CS)
| | - Caijun Sun
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen university), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (GC); (CS)
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Total Ginsenoside Extract from Panax ginseng Enhances Neural Stem Cell Proliferation and Neuronal Differentiation by Inactivating GSK-3 β. Chin J Integr Med 2022; 28:229-235. [PMID: 35084698 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-021-3508-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the effects of total ginsenosides (TG) extract from Panax ginseng on neural stem cell (NSC) proliferation and differentiation and their underlying mechanisms. METHODS The migration of NSCs after treatment with various concentrations of TG extract (50, 100, or 200 µ g/mL) were monitored. The proliferation of NSCs was examined by a combination of cell counting kit-8 and neurosphere assays. NSC differentiation mediated by TG extract was evaluated by Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining to monitor the expression of nestin and microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2). The GSK-3 β/β-catenin pathway in TG-treated NSCs was examined by Western blot assay. The NSCs with constitutively active GSK-3 β mutant were made by adenovirus-mediated gene transfection, then the proliferation and differentiation of NSCs mediated by TG were further verified. RESULTS TG treatment significantly enhanced NSC migration (P<0.01 or P<0.05) and increased the proliferation of NSCs (P<0.01 or P<0.05). TG mediation also significantly upregulated MAP2 expression but downregulated nestin expression (P<0.01 or P<0.05). TG extract also significantly induced GSK-3 β phosphorylation at Ser9, leading to GSK-3 β inactivation and, consequently, the activation of the GSK-3 β/β-catenin pathway (P<0.01 or P<0.05). In addition, constitutive activation of GSK-3 β in NSCs by the transfection of GSK-3 β S9A mutant was found to significantly suppress TG-mediated NSC proliferation and differentiation (P<0.01 or P<0.05). CONCLUSION TG promoted NSC proliferation and neuronal differentiation by inactivating GSK-3β.
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Raut D, Vora A, Bhatt LK. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway in breast cancer therapy: a pre-clinical perspective of its targeting for clinical translation. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2021; 22:97-114. [PMID: 34927527 DOI: 10.1080/14737140.2022.2016398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite various treatments available, there is still a high mortality rate in breast cancer patients. Thus, there exists an unmet need for new therapeutic interventions. Studies show that the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is involved in breast cancer metastasis because of its transcriptional control on epithelial to mesenchymal transition. AREAS COVERED This comprehensive review explores the Wnt signaling pathway as a potential target for treating breast cancer and other breast cancer subtypes. We discuss the Wnt signaling pathway, its role in breast cancer metastasis, and its effect on breast cancer stem cells. Further, endogenous agents that cause Wnt pathway inactivation are outlined. Finally, various natural and chemical compounds modulating the Wnt pathway used in pre-clinical or clinical trials for breast cancer treatment are discussed. EXPERT OPINION In vitro and in vivo studies indicate an immense potential of agents targeting the Wnt signaling pathway to prevent and manage breast cancer. Still, more clinical studies are required to support their use in humans. Apart from the agents already in clinical trials, several drug combinations discussed may be translated into clinical practice in a few years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezaree Raut
- Department of Pharmacology, SVKM's Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, Mumbai, India
| | - Amisha Vora
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, Mumbai, India
| | - Lokesh Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Pharmacology, SVKM's Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, Mumbai, India
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Integrated Molecular Characterization to Reveal the Association between Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase Expression and Tumorigenesis in Human Breast Cancers. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11100948. [PMID: 34683090 PMCID: PMC8539700 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11100948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) is overexpressed in several tumors and participates in the progression of breast cancer tumorigenesis, including cancer types such as triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). This malignant gene is an enzyme in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the carcinogenesis of cancer through immune function manipulation. However, it remains unclear whether the role of the KMO contributes to tumorigenesis and immune functions in human breast cancer. In this study, we found that KMO was highly expressed in different types of tumors, especially in invasive ductal breast carcinoma. In addition, KMO expression was positively correlated with the malignant clinical features of patients with breast cancer, such as TNBC and a nodal-positive status, along with patients with a higher Nottingham prognostic index (NPI). Furthermore, the top ten KMO-correlated genes were the chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines known to be involved in the progression of various cancers, therefore, KMO may facilitate breast cancers via synergistically regulating inflammatory responses in tumors with these hub genes. Taken together, these findings highlight the tumor-promotion role of KMO in breast cancers and suggest that KMO can serve as a biomarker for prognosis prediction in breast cancer patients.
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20
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Kynurenine Monooxygenase Expression and Activity in Human Astrocytomas. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082028. [PMID: 34440798 PMCID: PMC8393384 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor. The enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), which participates in the rate-limiting step of tryptophan catabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP), is associated with poor prognosis in patients with GBM. The metabolites produced after tryptophan oxidation have immunomodulatory properties that can support the immunosuppressor environment. In this study, mRNA expression, protein expression, and activity of the enzyme kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO) were analyzed in GBM cell lines (A172, LN-18, U87, U373) and patient-derived astrocytoma samples. KMO mRNA expression was assessed by real-time RT-qPCR, KMO protein expression was evaluated by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence, and KMO activity was determined by quantifying 3-hydroxykynurenine by HPLC. Heterogenous patterns of both KMO expression and activity were observed among the GBM cell lines, with the A172 cell line showing the highest KMO expression and activity. Higher KMO mRNA expression was observed in glioma samples than in patients diagnosed with only a neurological disease; high KMO mRNA expression was also observed when using samples from patients with GBM in the TCGA program. The KMO protein expression was localized in GFAP+ cells in tumor tissue. These results suggest that KMO is a relevant target to be explored in glioma since it might play a role in supporting tumor metabolism and immune suppression.
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Pham QT, Taniyama D, Akabane S, Harada K, Babasaki T, Sekino Y, Hayashi T, Sakamoto N, Sentani K, Oue N, Yasui W. TDO2 overexpression correlates with poor prognosis, cancer stemness, and resistance to cetuximab in bladder cancer. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2021; 4:e1417. [PMID: 34101386 PMCID: PMC8714553 DOI: 10.1002/cnr2.1417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bladder cancer (BC) is the 10th most common cancer in the world. BC with muscle invasion results in a poor prognosis and is usually fatal. Cancer cell metabolism has an essential role in the development and progression of tumors. Expression of tryptophan 2,3‐dioxygenase (TDO2) is associated with tumor progression and worse survival in some other cancers. However, no studies have been performed to uncover the biofunctional roles of TDO2 in BC. Aim This study aim to investigate the clinicopathologic significance of TDO2 in BC. Methods and results TDO2 expression was evaluated by qRT‐PCR and immunohistochemistry in an integrated analysis with the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and other published datasets. TDO2 overexpression was significantly associated with T classification, N classification, and M classification, tumor stage, recurrence, and basal type, and with the expression of CD44 and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1) in BC. High TDO2 expression correlated with poor outcome of BC patients. Using BC cell lines with knockdown and forced expression of TDO2, we found that TDO2 was involved in the growth, migration, and invasiveness of BC cells. Moreover, TDO2 was found to be crucial for spheroid formation in BC cells. Importantly, TDO2 promoted BC cells resistance to cetuximab through integration of the EGFR pathway. Conclusion Our results indicate that TDO2 might take an essential part in BC progression and could be a potential marker for targeted therapy in BC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quoc Thang Pham
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan.,Department of Pathology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Daiki Taniyama
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Shintaro Akabane
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kenji Harada
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takashi Babasaki
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan.,Department of Urology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yohei Sekino
- Department of Urology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Tetsuraro Hayashi
- Department of Urology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Naoya Sakamoto
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Sentani
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Naohide Oue
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Wataru Yasui
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima, Japan
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22
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Liu CY, Huang TT, Chen JL, Chu PY, Lee CH, Lee HC, Lee YH, Chang YY, Yang SH, Jiang JK, Chen WS, Chao Y, Teng HW. Significance of Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase Expression in Colorectal Cancer. Front Oncol 2021; 11:620361. [PMID: 33937026 PMCID: PMC8085544 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.620361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Because of the lack of reliable prognostic and predictive biomarkers for CRC, most patients are often diagnosed at a late stage. The tryptophan–kynurenine pathway plays a crucial role in promoting cancer progression. Kynurenine is considered an oncometabolite in colon cancer, and its downstream metabolites are also associated with CRC. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), a pivotal enzyme that catalyzes kynurenine metabolism, is essential for several cellular processes. In the current study, we explored the role of KMO in CRC. Immunohistochemical results showed that KMO was upregulated in CRC tissues relative to paired healthy tissue and polyps. Moreover, CRC patients with higher KMO expression were associated with higher metastasis and poorer survival rates. Knockdown of KMO decreased the expression of cancer stem cell markers, as well as the sphere-forming, migration, and invasion abilities of CRC cells. Additionally, blockade of the enzymatic activity of KMO using an inhibitor suppressed sphere formation and cell motility in CRC cells. These findings suggest the clinical relevance of KMO in CRC tumorigenesis and aggressiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yu Liu
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Transfusion Medicine, Department of Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Ting Huang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ji-Lin Chen
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yi Chu
- Department of Pathology, Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua City, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Han Lee
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Chen Lee
- School of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsuan Lee
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Ya Chang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shung-Haur Yang
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.,Division of Colon and Rectum Surgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Surgery, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University Hospital, Yilan, Taiwan
| | - Jeng-Kai Jiang
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.,Division of Colon and Rectum Surgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Shone Chen
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.,Division of Colon and Rectum Surgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yee Chao
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Wei Teng
- School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, Center for Immuno-Oncology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
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23
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Ala M. The footprint of kynurenine pathway in every cancer: a new target for chemotherapy. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 896:173921. [PMID: 33529725 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.173921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of cancers has always been a challenge for physicians. Typically, several groups of anti-cancer medications are needed for effective management of an invasive and metastatic cancer. Recently, therapeutic potentiation of immune system markedly improved treatment of cancers. Kynurenine pathway has an interwoven correlation with immune system. Kynurenine promotes T Reg (regulatory) differentiation, which leads to increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppression of cytotoxic activity of T cells. Overactivation of kynurenine pathway in cancers provides an immunologically susceptible microenvironment for mutant cells to survive and invade surrounding tissues. Interestingly, kynurenine pathway vigorously interacts with other molecular pathways involved in tumorigenesis. For instance, kynurenine pathway interacts with phospoinosisitide-3 kinase (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Wnt/β-catenin, P53, bridging integrator 1 (BIN-1), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) and collagen type XII α1 chain (COL12A1). Overactivation of kynurenine pathway, particularly overactivation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) predicts poor prognosis of several cancers such as gastrointestinal cancers, gynecological cancers, hematologic malignancies, breast cancer, lung cancer, glioma, melanoma, prostate cancer and pancreatic cancer. Furthermore, kynurenine increases the invasion, metastasis and chemoresistance of cancer cells. Recently, IDO inhibitors entered clinical trials and successfully passed their safety tests and showed promising therapeutic efficacy for cancers such as melanoma, brain cancer, renal cell carcinoma, prostate cancer and pancreatic cancer. However, a phase III trial of epacadostat, an IDO inhibitor, could not increase the efficacy of treatment with pembrolizumab for melanoma. In this review the expanding knowledge towards kynurenine pathway and its application in each cancer is discussed separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moein Ala
- School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran.
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24
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Kaukonen D, Kaukonen R, Polit L, Hennessy BT, Lund R, Madden SF. Analysis of H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 bivalent promotors in HER2+ breast cancer cell lines reveals variations depending on estrogen receptor status and significantly correlates with gene expression. BMC Med Genomics 2020; 13:92. [PMID: 32620123 PMCID: PMC7333309 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-020-00749-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of histone modifications is poorly characterized in breast cancer, especially within the major subtypes. While epigenetic modifications may enhance the adaptability of a cell to both therapy and the surrounding environment, the mechanisms by which this is accomplished remains unclear. In this study we focus on the HER2 subtype and investigate two histone trimethylations that occur on the histone 3; the trimethylation located at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) found in active promoters and the trimethylation located at lysine 27 (H3K27me3) that correlates with gene repression. A bivalency state is the result of the co-presence of these two marks at the same promoter. METHODS In this study we investigated the relationship between these histone modifications in promoter regions and their proximal gene expression in HER2+ breast cancer cell lines. In addition, we assessed these patterns with respect to the presence or absence of the estrogen receptor (ER). To do this, we utilized ChIP-seq and matching RNA-seq from publicly available data for the AU565, SKBR3, MB361 and UACC812 cell lines. In order to visualize these relationships, we used KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, and Kaplan-Meyer plots. RESULTS We found that the correlation between the three types of promoter trimethylation statuses (H3K4me3, H3K27me3 or both) and the expression of the proximal genes was highly significant overall, while roughly a third of all genes are regulated by this phenomenon. We also show that there are several pathways related to cancer progression and invasion that are associated with the bivalent status of the gene promoters, and that there are specific differences between ER+ and ER- HER2+ breast cancer cell lines. These specific differences that are differentially trimethylated are also shown to be differentially expressed in patient samples. One of these genes, HIF1AN, significantly correlates with patient outcome. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the importance of looking at epigenetic markings at a subtype specific level by characterizing the relationship between the bivalent promoters and gene expression. This provides a deeper insight into a mechanism that could lead to future targets for treatment and prognosis, along with oncogenesis and response to therapy of HER2+ breast cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Kaukonen
- Data Science Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Riina Kaukonen
- Turku Bioscience, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Lélia Polit
- Institute Cochin, University Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Bryan T Hennessy
- Medical Oncology Group, Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Riikka Lund
- Turku Bioscience, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen F Madden
- Data Science Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
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25
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Park SY, Nam JS. Kynurenine pathway enzyme KMO in cancer progression: A tip of the Iceberg. EBioMedicine 2020; 55:102762. [PMID: 32339939 PMCID: PMC7186510 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- So-Yeon Park
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005 Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Seok Nam
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005 Republic of Korea.
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