Design, synthesis and evaluation of new quinazolin-4-one derivatives as apoptotic enhancers and autophagy inhibitors with potent antitumor activity

N-allyl quinoxaline derivative exhibited potent and selective cytotoxicity through EGFR/VEGFR-mediated apoptosis: In vitro and in vivo studies

The cytotoxic activity, EGFR/VEGFR2 target inhibition, apoptotic activity, RT-PCR gene expression, in vivo employing a solid-Ehrlich carcinoma model, and in silico investigations for highlighting the binding affinity of eight quinoxaline derivatives were tested for anticancer activities. The results showed that compound 8 (N-allyl quinoxaline) had potent cytotoxicity against A594 and MCF-7 cancer cells with IC50 values of 0.86 and 1.06 µM, respectively, with noncytotoxic activity against WISH and MCF-10A cells having IC50 values more than 100 µM. Furthermore, it strongly induced apoptotic cell death in A549 and MCF-7 cells by 43.13% and 34.07%, respectively, stopping the cell cycle at S and G1-phases. For the molecular target, the results showed that compound 8 had a promising EGFR inhibition activity with an IC50 value of 0.088 µM compared to Sorafenib (IC50  = 0.056 µM), and it had a promising VEGFR2 inhibition activity with an IC50 value of 0.108 µM compared to Sorafenib (IC50  = 0.049 µM). Treatment with compound 8 ameliorated biochemical and histochemical parameters near normal in the in vivo investigation, with a tumor inhibition ratio of 68.19% compared to 64.8% for 5-FU treatment. Finally, the molecular docking study demonstrated the binding affinity through binding energy and interactive binding mode inside the EGFR/VEGFR2 proteins. Potent EGFR and VEGFR2 inhibition of compound 8 suggests its potential for development as a selective anticancer drug.

Design and synthesis of quinazolin-4-one derivatives as potential anticancer agents and investigation of their interaction with RecQ helicases

The upregulation of RecQ helicases has been associated with cancer cell survival and resistance to chemotherapy, making them appealing targets for therapeutic intervention. In this study, twenty-nine novel quinazolinone derivatives were designed and synthesized. The anti-proliferative activity of all compounds was evaluated against 60 cancer cell lines at the National Cancer Institute Developmental Therapeutic Program, with six compounds (11f, 11g, 11k, 11n, 11p, and 11q) being promoted to a five-dose screen. Compound 11g demonstrated high cytotoxic activity against all examined cell lines. The compounds were further assayed for Bloom syndrome (BLM) helicase inhibition, where 11g, 11q, and 11u showed moderate activity. These compounds were counter-screened against WRN and RECQ1 helicases, where 11g moderately inhibited both enzymes. An ATP competition assay confirmed that the compounds bound to the ATP site of RecQ helicases, and molecular docking simulations were used to study the binding mode within the active site of BLM, WRN, and RECQ1 helicases. Compound 11g induced apoptosis in both HCT-116 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines, but also caused an G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in HCT-116 cells. This data revealed the potential of 11g as a modulator of cell cycle dynamics and supports its interaction with RecQ helicases. In addition, compound 11g displayed non-significant toxicity against FCH normal colon cells at doses up to 100 µM, which confirming its high safety margin and selectivity on cancer cells. Overall, these findings suggest compound 11g as a potential pan RecQ helicase inhibitor with high anticancer potency and a favorable safety margin and selectivity.

Discovery of Potent Indolyl-Hydrazones as Kinase Inhibitors for Breast Cancer: Synthesis, X-ray Single-Crystal Analysis, and In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Cancer Activity Evaluation

According to data provided by the World Health Organization (WHO), a total of 2.3 million women across the globe received a diagnosis of breast cancer in the year 2020, and among these cases, 685,000 resulted in fatalities. As the incidence of breast cancer statistics continues to rise, it is imperative to explore new avenues in the ongoing battle against this disease. Therefore, a number of new indolyl-hydrazones were synthesized by reacting the ethyl 3-formyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylate 1 with thiosemicarbazide, semicarbazide.HCl, 4-nitrophenyl hydrazine, 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine, and 4-amino-5-(1H-indol-2-yl)-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione to afford the new hit compounds, which were assigned chemical structures as thiosemicarbazone 3, bis(hydrazine derivative) 5, semicarbzone 6, Schiff base 8, and the corresponding hydrazones 10 and 12 by NMR, elemental analysis, and X-ray single-crystal analysis. The MTT assay was employed to investigate the compounds' cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells (MCF-7). Cytotoxicity results disclosed potent IC50 values against MCF-7, especially compounds 5, 8, and 12, with IC50 values of 2.73 ± 0.14, 4.38 ± 0.23, and 7.03 ± 0.37 μM, respectively, compared to staurosproine (IC50 = 8.32 ± 0.43 μM). Consequently, the activities of compounds 5, 8, and 12 in relation to cell migration were investigated using the wound-healing test. The findings revealed notable wound-healing efficacy, with respective percentages of wound closure measured at 48.8%, 60.7%, and 51.8%. The impact of the hit compounds on cell proliferation was assessed by examining their apoptosis-inducing properties. Intriguingly, compound 5 exhibited a significant enhancement in cell death within MCF-7 cells, registering a notable increase of 39.26% in comparison to the untreated control group, which demonstrated only 1.27% cell death. Furthermore, the mechanism of action of compound 5 was scrutinized through testing against kinase receptors. The results revealed significant kinase inhibition, particularly against PI3K-α, PI3K-β, PI3K-δ, CDK2, AKT-1, and EGFR, showcasing promising activity, compared to standard drugs targeting these receptors. In the conclusive phase, through in vivo assay, compound 5 demonstrated a substantial reduction in tumor volume, decreasing from 106 mm³ in the untreated control to 56.4 mm³. Moreover, it significantly attenuated tumor proliferation by 46.9%. In view of these findings, the identified leads exhibit promises for potential development into future medications for the treatment of breast cancer, as they effectively hinder both cell migration and proliferation.

Design, synthesis, molecular modelling and antitumor evaluation of S-glucosylated rhodanines through topo II inhibition and DNA intercalation

In the present study, 5-arylidene rhodanine derivatives 3a-f, N-glucosylation rhodanine 6, S-glucosylation rhodanine 7, N-glucoside rhodanine 8 and S-glucosylation 5-arylidene rhodanines 13a-c were synthesised and screened for cytotoxicity against a panel of cancer cells with investigating the effective molecular target and mechanistic cell death. The anomers were separated by flash column chromatography and their configurations were assigned by NMR spectroscopy. The stable structures of the compounds under study were modelled on a molecular level, and DFT calculations were carried out at the B3LYP/6-31 + G (d,p) level to examine their electronic and geometric features. A good correlation between the quantum chemical descriptors and experimental observations was found. Interestingly, compound 6 induced potent cytotoxicity against MCF-7, HepG2 and A549 cells, with IC₅₀ values of 11.7, 0.21, and 1.7 µM, compared to Dox 7.67, 8.28, and 6.62 µM, respectively. For the molecular target, compound 6 exhibited topoisomerase II inhibition and DNA intercalation with IC₅₀ values of 6.9 and 19.6 µM, respectively compared to Dox (IC₅₀ = 9.65 and 31.27 µM). Additionally, compound 6 treatmnet significantly activated apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells by 80.7-fold, it induced total apoptosis by 34.73% (23.07% for early apoptosis, 11.66% for late apoptosis) compared to the untreated control group (0.43%) arresting the cell population at the S-phase by 49.6% compared to control 39.15%. Finally, compound 6 upregulated the apoptosis-related genes, while it inhibted the Bcl-2 expression. Hence, glucosylated rhodanines may serve as a promising drug candidates against cancer with promising topoisomerase II and DNA intercalation.

Design and synthesis of novel rigid dibenzo[b,f]azepines through ring closure technique as promising anticancer candidates against leukaemia and acting as selective topoisomerase II inhibitors and DNA intercalators

In this research, two novel series of dibenzo[b,f]azepines (14 candidates) were designed and synthesised based on the rigidification principle and following the reported doxorubicin's pharmacophoric features. The anti-proliferative activity was evaluated at the NCI against a panel of 60 cancer cell lines. Further, the promising candidates (5a-g) were evaluated for their ability to inhibit topoisomerase II, where 5e was noticed to be the most active congener. Moreover, its cytotoxicity was evaluated against leukaemia SR cells. Also, 5e arrested the cell cycle at the G1 phase and increased the apoptosis ratio by 37.34%. Furthermore, in vivo studies of 5e showed the inhibition of tumour proliferation and the decrease in its volume. Histopathology and liver enzymes were examined as well. Besides, molecular docking, physicochemical, and pharmacokinetic properties were carried out. Finally, a SAR study was discussed to open the gate for further optimisation of the most promising candidate (5e).HighlightsTwo novel series of dibenzo[b,f]azepines were designed and synthesised based on the rigidification principle in drug design.The anti-proliferative activity was evaluated at the NCI against a panel of 60 cancer cell lines.5e was the most active anti-topo II congener (IC₅₀ = 6.36 ± 0.36 µM).5e was evaluated against leukaemia SR cells and its cytotoxic effect was confirmed (IC₅₀ = 13.05 ± 0.62 µM).In vivo studies of 5e significantly inhibited tumour proliferation by 62.7% and decreased tumour volume to 30.1 mm³ compared to doxorubicin treatment.

Silver nanoparticles formulation of Marrubium alysson L. phenolic extract potentiates cytotoxicity through apoptosis with molecular docking study as Bcl-2 inhibitors

Crude or semi-purified extracts of plants can play a significant role as antitumor agents. They were used as stabilizing and reducing agents in the preparation of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) that allows these particles to have more efficient cytotoxic activity. In the current study, the extract of Marrubium alysson L., a plant of common occurrence in Egypt was used to synthesize AgNPs for the first time, where comparison of anticancer activity of crude and phenolic extracts with the AgNPs were extensively studied against cancer cell lines PC-3 and HCT-116. Interestingly, AgNPs of the crude extract exhibited promising cytotoxicity with IC50 values of 10.4 and 16.3 μg/ml, while AgNPs of the phenolic extract exhibited very potent cytotoxicity with IC50 values of 2.66 and 1.34 μg/ml compared to Doxorubicin (as a standard reference drug) that exhibited IC50 values of 5.13 and 4.36 μg/ml, respectively against the tested cells. Additionally, AgNPs of the phenolic extract induced apoptosis in HCT-116 with a higher ratio than in PC-3 cells. It induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells by 79.3-fold change, while it induced total colon apoptotic cell death by 228.3-fold change compared to untreated control. Finally, the apoptotic activity of AgNPs of the phenolic extract in the treated PC-3 and HCT-116 cells was confirmed using RT-PCR. As a result, AgNPs of the phenolic extract could be considered a promising anticancer candidate through apoptosis-induction.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

New proapoptotic chemotherapeutic agents based on the quinolone-3-carboxamide scaffold acting by VEGFR-2 inhibition

In the current study, we designed and synthesized a series of new quinoline derivatives 10a-p as antiproliferative agents targeting cancer through inhibition of VEGFR-2. Preliminary molecular docking to assess the interactions of the designed derivatives with the binding site of VEGFR-2 (PDB code: 4ASD) displayed binding poses and interactions comparable to sorafenib. The synthesized compounds exhibited VEGFR-2 inhibitory activity with IC50 ranging from 36 nM to 2.23 μM compared to sorafenib (IC50 = 45 nM), where derivative 10i was the most potent. Additionally, the synthesized derivatives were evaluated in vitro for their cytotoxic activity against HepG2 cancer cell line. Seven compounds 10a, 10c, 10d, 10e, 10i, 10n and 10o (IC50 = 4.60, 4.14, 1.07, 0.88, 1.60, 2.88 and 2.76 μM respectively) displayed better antiproliferative activity than sorafenib (IC50 = 8.38 μM). Compound 10i was tested against Transformed Human Liver Epithelial-2 normal cell line (THLE-2) to evaluate its selective cytotoxicity. Furthermore, 10i, as a potent representative of the series, was assayed for its apoptotic activity and cell cycle kinetics' influence on HepG2, its effects on the gene expression of VEGFR-2, and protein expression of the apoptotic markers Caspase-7 and Bax. Compound 10i proved to have a potential role in apoptosis by causing significant increase in the early and late apoptotic quartiles, a remarkable activity in elevating the relative protein expression of Bax and Caspase-7 and a significant reduction of VEGFR-2 gene expression. Collectively, the obtained results indicate that compound 10i has a promising potential as a lead compound for the development of new anticancer agents.

Molecular Docking Study of New Sorafenib Analogues as Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors for the Treatment of Cancer

Cancer is a disease triggered by an uncontrolled growth of a group of cells usually from a single cell. Chemotherapy is a common and systematic therapy that involves the use of anticancer drugs also known as chemotherapeutical agents to treat cancer. Tyrosine kinases are a subset of protein kinases that are a family of over 90 enzymes that selectively phosphorylate tyrosine residues in various substrates. Receptors with internal tyrosine kinase activity mediate the actions of several growth factors, differentiation factors, and hormones, resulting in the reproduction and differentiation of the affected cells. In the fight against cancer, the platelet-derived growth factor receptor has emerged as a novel target via inhibition of this receptor resulting in the inhibition of tyrosine kinase cascade. Docking investigations were conducted using the Genetic Optimization for Ligand Docking (GOLD) Suite (v. 5.7.1) from the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Center. A high-definition X-ray crystallography of the platelet-derived growth factor protein [Protein Data Bank (PDB) ID 6JOL] was downloaded from the website PDB with a resolution of 2 A. Compounds II, III, VII, and VIII have greater binding energies than the GOLD standard medication sorafenib, which gives Piecewise Linear Potential (PLP) fitness value (85.3). Other ligands exhibit good inhibitory action and docking scores comparable to that of the reference ligand sorafenib.

Design, Synthesis, Computational Investigations, and Antitumor Evaluation of N-Rhodanine Glycosides Derivatives as Potent DNA Intercalation and Topo II Inhibition against Cancer Cells

Nitrogen and sulfur glycosylation was carried out via the reaction of rhodanine (1) with α-acetobromoglucose 3 under basic conditions. Deacetylation of the protected nitrogen nucleoside 4 was performed with CH₃ONa in CH₃OH without cleavage of the rhodanine ring to afford the deprotected nitrogen nucleoside 6. Further, deacetylation of the protected sulfur nucleoside 5 was performed with CH₃ONa in CH₃OH with the cleavage of the rhodanine ring to give the hydrolysis product 7. The protected nitrogen nucleosides 11a-f were produced by condensing the protected nitrogen nucleoside 4 with the aromatic aldehydes 10a-f in C₂H₅OH while using morpholine as a secondary amine catalyst. Deacetylation of the protected nitrogen nucleosides 11a-f was performed with NaOCH₃/CH₃OH without cleavage of the rhodanine ring to afford the deprotected nitrogen nucleosides 12a-f. NMR spectroscopy was used to designate the anomers' configurations. To examine the electrical and geometric properties derived from the stable structure of the examined compounds, molecular modeling and DFT calculations using the B3LYP/6-31+G (d,p) level were carried out. The quantum chemical descriptors and experimental findings showed a strong connection. The IC₅₀ values for most compounds were very encouraging when evaluated against MCF-7, HepG2, and A549 cancer cells. Interestingly, IC₅₀ values for 11a, 12b, and 12f were much lower than those for Doxorubicin (7.67, 8.28, 6.62 μM): (3.7, 8.2, 9.8 μM), (3.1, 13.7, 21.8 μM), and (7.17, 2.2, 4.5 μM), respectively. Against Topo II inhibition and DNA intercalation, when compared to Dox (IC₅₀ = 9.65 and 31.27 μM), compound 12f showed IC₅₀ values of 7.3 and 18.2 μM, respectively. In addition, compound 12f induced a 65.6-fold increase in the rate of apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells, with the cell cycle being arrested in the G2/M phase as a result. Additionally, it upregulated the apoptosis-mediated genes of P53, Bax, and caspase-3,8,9 by 9.53, 8.9, 4.16, 1.13, and 8.4-fold change, while it downregulated the Bcl-2 expression by 0.13-fold. Therefore, glucosylated Rhodanines may be useful as potential therapeutic candidates against cancer because of their topoisomerase II and DNA intercalation activity.

Towards dual function of autophagy in breast cancer: A potent regulator of tumor progression and therapy response

As a devastating disease, breast cancer has been responsible for decrease in life expectancy of females and its morbidity and mortality are high. Breast cancer is the most common tumor in females and its treatment has been based on employment of surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The changes in biological behavior of breast tumor relies on genomic and epigenetic mutations and depletions as well as dysregulation of molecular mechanisms that autophagy is among them. Autophagy function can be oncogenic in increasing tumorigenesis, and when it has pro-death function, it causes reduction in viability of tumor cells. The carcinogenic function of autophagy in breast tumor is an impediment towards effective therapy of patients, as it can cause drug resistance and radio-resistance. The important hallmarks of breast tumor such as glucose metabolism, proliferation, apoptosis and metastasis can be regulated by autophagy. Oncogenic autophagy can inhibit apoptosis, while it promotes stemness of breast tumor. Moreover, autophagy demonstrates interaction with tumor microenvironment components such as macrophages and its level can be regulated by anti-tumor compounds in breast tumor therapy. The reasons of considering autophagy in breast cancer therapy is its pleiotropic function, dual role (pro-survival and pro-death) and crosstalk with important molecular mechanisms such as apoptosis. Moreover, current review provides a pre-clinical and clinical evaluation of autophagy in breast tumor.

Nitrogen Containing Heterocycles as Anticancer Agents: A Medicinal Chemistry Perspective

Cancer is one of the major healthcare challenges across the globe. Several anticancer drugs are available on the market but they either lack specificity or have poor safety, severe side effects, and suffer from resistance. So, there is a dire need to develop safer and target-specific anticancer drugs. More than 85% of all physiologically active pharmaceuticals are heterocycles or contain at least one heteroatom. Nitrogen heterocycles constituting the most common heterocyclic framework. In this study, we have compiled the FDA approved heterocyclic drugs with nitrogen atoms and their pharmacological properties. Moreover, we have reported nitrogen containing heterocycles, including pyrimidine, quinolone, carbazole, pyridine, imidazole, benzimidazole, triazole, β-lactam, indole, pyrazole, quinazoline, quinoxaline, isatin, pyrrolo-benzodiazepines, and pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidines, which are used in the treatment of different types of cancer, concurrently covering the biochemical mechanisms of action and cellular targets.

Synthesis of New Bioactive Indolyl-1,2,4-Triazole Hybrids As Dual Inhibitors for EGFR/PARP-1 Targeting Breast and Liver Cancer Cells

Cancer is the most severe disease worldwide. Every year, tens of millions of people are diagnosed with cancer, and over half of those people will ultimately die from the disease. Hence, the discovery of new inhibitors for fighting cancer is necessary. As a result, new indolyl-triazole hybrids were synthesized to target breast and liver cancer cells. The synthetic strategy involves glycosylation of the 4-aryltriazolethiones 3a-b with acetyl-protected α-halosugars in the presence of K₂CO₃ in acetone to give a mixture of β-S-glycosides 6a-b, 7a-b, and β-N-glycosides 8a-b, 9a-b. Chemo-selective S-glycosylation was achieved using NaHCO₃ in ethanol. The migration of glycosyl moiety from sulfur to nitrogen (S → N glycosylmigration) was achieved thermally without any catalyst. Alkylation of the triazole-thiones with 2-bromoethanol and 1-bromopropan-2-ol in the presence of K₂CO₃ yielded the corresponding S-alkylated products. The synthesized compounds were tested for their cytotoxicity using an MTT assay and for apoptosis induction targeting PARP-1 and EGFR. Compounds 12b, 13a, and 13b exhibited cytotoxic activities with promising IC₅₀ values of 2.67, 6.21, 1.07 μM against MCF-7 cells and 3.21, 8.91, 0.32 μM against HepG2 cells compared to Erlotinib (IC₅₀ = 2.51, 2.91 μM, respectively) as reference drug. Interestingly, compounds 13b induced apoptosis in MCf-7 and HepG2 cells, arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M and S phases, respectively. Additionally, the dual enzyme inhibition seen in compound 13b against EGFR and PARP-1 is encouraging, with IC₅₀ values of 62.4 nM compared to Erlotinib (80 nM) and 1.24 nM compared to Olaparib (1.49 nM), respectively. The anticancer activity was finally validated using an in vivo SEC-cancer model; compound 13b improved both hematological and biochemical analyses inhibiting tumor proliferation by 66.7% compared to Erlotinib's 65.7%. So, compound 13b may serve as a promising anticancer activity through dual PARP-1/EGFR target inhibition.

Comparative Cytotoxic Evaluation of Zygophyllum album Root and Aerial Parts of Different Extracts and Their Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles on Lung A549 and Prostate PC-3 Cancer Cell Lines

The current work demonstrates a comparative study between aerial and root parts of Zygophyllum album L. The total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC), in addition to the antioxidant activity, of the crude extracts were investigated, where the aerial parts revealed a higher value overall. By means of UV–VIS and HPLC, rutin and caffeic acid were detected and then quantified as 5.91 and 0.97 mg/g of the plant extract, respectively. Moreover, the biosynthesis of AgNPs utilizing the crude extract of the arial parts and root of Z. album L. and the phenolic extracts was achieved in an attempt to enhance the cytotoxicity of the different plant extracts. The prepared AgNPs formulations were characterized by TEM and zeta potential measurements, which revealed that all of the formulated AgNPs were of a small particle diameter and were highly stable. The mean hydrodynamic particle size ranged from 67.11 to 80.04 nm, while the zeta potential ranged from 29.1 to 38.6 mV. Upon biosynthesis of the AgNPs using the extracts, the cytotoxicity of the tested samples was improved, so the polyphenolics AgNPs of the aerial parts exhibited a potent cytotoxicity against lung A549 and prostate PC-3 cancer cells with IC₅₀ values of 6.1 and 4.36 µg/mL, respectively, compared with Doxorubicin (IC₅₀ values of 6.19 and 5.13 µg/mL, respectively). Regarding the apoptotic activity, polyphenolics AgNPs of the aerial parts induced apoptotic cell death by 4.2-fold in PC-3 and 4.7-fold in A549 cells compared with the untreated control. The mechanism of apoptosis in both cancerous cells appeared to be via the upregulation proapoptotic genes; p53, Bax, caspase 3, 8, and 9, and the downregulation of antiapoptotic gene, Bcl-2. Hence, this formula may serve as a good source for anticancer agents against PC-3 and A549 cells.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Cytotoxicity of New Spirooxindoles Engrafted Furan Structural Motif as a Potential Anticancer Agent

A new series of spirooxindoles based on ethylene derivatives having furan aryl moiety are reported. The new hybrids were achieved via [3 + 2] cycloaddition reaction as an economic one-step efficient approach. The final constructed spirooxindoles have four contiguous asymmetric carbon centers. The structure of 3a is exclusively confirmed using X-ray single crystal diffraction. The supramolecular structure of 3a is controlled by O···H, H···H, and C···C intermolecular contacts. It includes layered molecules interconnected weak C-H···O (2.675 Å), H···H (2.269 Å), and relatively short Cl···Br interhalogen interactions [3.4500(11)Å]. Using Hirshfeld analysis, the percentages of these intermolecular contacts are 10.6, 25.7, 6.4, and 6.2%, respectively. The spirooxindoles along with ethylene derivatives having furan aryl moiety were assessed against breast (MCF7) and liver (HepG2) cancer cell lines. The results indicated that the new chalcone 3b showed excellent activity in both cell lines (MCF7 and HepG2) with IC₅₀ = 4.1 ± 0.10 μM/mL (MCF7) and 3.5 ± 0.07 μM/mL (HepG2) compared to staurosporine with 4.3 and 2.92 folds. Spirooxindoles 6d (IC₅₀ = 4.3 ± 0.18 μM/mL), 6f (IC₅₀ = 10.3 ± 0.40 μM/mL), 6i (IC₅₀ = 10.7 ± 0.38 μM/mL), and 6j (IC₅₀ = 4.7 ± 0.18 μM/mL) exhibited potential activity against breast adenocarcinoma, while compounds 6d (IC₅₀ = 6.9 ± 0.23 μM/mL) and 6f (IC₅₀ = 3.5 ± 0.11 μM/mL) were the most active hybrids against human liver cancer cell line (HepG2) compared to staurosporine [IC₅₀ = 17.8 ± 0.50 μM/mL (MCF7) and 10.3 ± 0.23 μM/mL (HepG2)]. Molecular docking study exhibited the virtual mechanism of binding of compound 3b as a dual inhibitor of EGFR/CDK-2 proteins, and this may highlight the molecular targets for its cytotoxic activity.

Phragmanthera austroarabica A.G.Mill. and J.A.Nyberg Triggers Apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 Cells In Vitro and In Vivo Assays: Simultaneous Determination of Selected Constituents

Phragmanthera austroarabica (Loranthaceae), a semi-parasitic plant, is well known for its high content of polyphenols that are responsible for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Gallic acid, catechin, and methyl gallate are bioactive metabolites of common occurrence in the family of Loranthaceae. Herein, the concentrations of these bioactive metabolites were assessed using high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). Methyl gallate, catechin, and gallic acid were scanned at 280 nm. Their concentrations were assessed as 14.5, 6.5 and 43.6 mg/g of plant dry extract, respectively. Phragmanthera austroarabica extract as well as the three pure compounds were evaluated regarding the cytotoxic activity. The plant extract exhibited promising cytotoxic activity against MDA-MB-231 breast cells with the IC₅₀ value of 19.8 μg/mL while the tested pure compounds displayed IC₅₀ values in the range of 21.26–29.6 μg/mL. For apoptosis investigation, P. austroarabica induced apoptotic cell death by 111-fold change and necrosis by 9.31-fold change. It also activated the proapoptotic genes markers and inhibited the antiapoptotic gene, validating the apoptosis mechanism. Moreover, in vivo studies revealed a significant reduction in the breast tumor volume and weight in solid Ehrlich carcinoma (SEC) mice. The treatment of SEC mice with P. austroarabica extract improved both hematological and biochemical parameters with amelioration in the liver and kidney histopathology to near normal. Taken together, P. austroarabica extract exhibited promising anti-cancer activity through an apoptosis-induction.

Silver Nanoparticles Formulation of Flower Head’s Polyphenols of Cynara scolymus L.: A Promising Candidate against Prostate (PC-3) Cancer Cell Line through Apoptosis Activation

Cynara scolymus L. (Family: Compositae) or artichoke is a nutritious edible plant widely used for its hepatoprotective effect. Crude extracts of flower, bract, and stem were prepared and evaluated for their in vitro antioxidant activity and phenolic content. The flower crude extract exhibited the highest phenolic content (74.29 mg GAE/gm) as well as the best in vitro antioxidant activity using total antioxidant capacity (TAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FEAP), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhyazyl (DPPH) scavenging assays compared with ascorbic acid. Phenolic fractions of the crude extracts of different parts were separated and identified using high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC-DAD analysis. The silver nanoparticles of these phenolic fractions were established and tested for their cytotoxicity and apoptotic activity. Results showed that silver nanoparticles of a polyphenolic fraction of flower extract (Nano-TP/Flowers) exhibited potent cytotoxicity against prostate (PC-3) and lung (A549) cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 0.85 μg/mL and 0.94 μg/mL, respectively, compared with doxorubicin as a standard. For apoptosis-induction, Nano-TP/Flowers exhibited apoptosis in PC-3 with a higher ratio than in A549 cells. It induced total prostate apoptotic cell death by 227-fold change while it induced apoptosis in A549 cells by 15.6-fold change. Nano-TP/Flowers upregulated both pro-apoptotic markers and downregulated the antiapoptotic genes using RT-PCR. Hence, this extract may serve as a promising source for anti-prostate cancer candidates.

Acetic Acid Mediated for One-Pot Synthesis of Novel Pyrazolyl s-Triazine Derivatives for the Targeted Therapy of Triple-Negative Breast Tumor Cells (MDA-MB-231) via EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Cascades

Here, we described the synthesis of novel pyrazole-s-triazine derivatives via an easy one-pot procedure for the reaction of β-dicarbonyl compounds (ethylacetoacetate, 5,5-dimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadione or 1,3-cyclohexadionone) with N,N-dimethylformamide dimethylacetal, followed by addition of 2-hydrazinyl-4,6-disubstituted-s-triazine either in ethanol-acetic acid or neat acetic acid to afford a novel pyrazole and pyrazole-fused cycloalkanone systems. The synthetic protocol proved to be efficient, with a shorter reaction time and high chemical yield with broad substrates. The new pyrazolyl-s-triazine derivatives were tested against the following cell lines: MCF-7 (breast cancer); MDA-MB-231 (triple-negative breast cancer); U-87 MG (glioblastoma); A549 (non-small cell lung cancer); PANC-1 (pancreatic cancer); and human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). The cell viability assay revealed that most of the s-triazine compounds induced cytotoxicity in all the cell lines tested. However, compounds 7d, 7f and 7c, which all have a piperidine or morpholine moiety with one aniline ring or two aniline rings in their structures, were the most effective. Compounds 7f and 7d showed potent EGFR inhibitory activity with IC₅₀ values of 59.24 and 70.3 nM, respectively, compared to Tamoxifen (IC₅₀ value of 69.1 nM). Compound 7c exhibited moderate activity, with IC₅₀ values of 81.6 nM. Interestingly, hybrids 7d and 7f exerted remarkable PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitory activity with 0.66/0.82/0.80 and 0.35/0.56/0.66-fold, respectively, by inhibiting their concentrations to 4.39, 37.3, and 69.3 ng/mL in the 7d-treatment, and to 2.39, 25.34 and 57.6 ng/mL in the 7f-treatment compared to the untreated control.

Synthesis, antitumor activity, 3D-QSAR and molecular docking studies of new iodinated 4-(3H)-quinazolinones 3N-substituted

A novel series of 6-iodo-2-methylquinazolin-4-(3H)-one derivatives, 3a–n, were synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxic activity. Compounds 3a, 3b, 3d, 3e, and 3h showed remarkable cytotoxic activity on specific human cancer cell lines when compared to the anti-cancer drug, paclitaxel. Compound 3a was found to be particularly effective on promyelocytic leukaemia HL60 and non-Hodgkin lymphoma U937, with IC₅₀ values of 21 and 30 μM, respectively. Compound 3d showed significant activity against cervical cancer HeLa (IC₅₀ = 10 μM). The compounds 3e and 3h were strongly active against glioblastoma multiform tumour T98G, with IC₅₀ values of 12 and 22 μM, respectively. These five compounds showed an interesting cytotoxic activity on four human cancer cell types of high incidence. The molecular docking results reveal a good correlation between experimental activity and calculated binding affinity on dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Docking studies proved 3d as the most potent compound. In addition, the three-dimensional quantitative structure–activity relationship (3D-QSAR) analysis exhibited activities that may indicate the existence of electron-withdrawing and lipophilic groups at the para-position of the phenyl ring and hydrophobic interactions of the quinazolinic ring in the DHFR active site.

New iodinated 4-(3H)-quinazolinones 3N-substituted with antitumor activity and 3D-QSAR and molecular docking studies as dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) inhibitors.

DHW-208, A Novel Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase (PI3K) Inhibitor, Has Anti-Hepatocellular Carcinoma Activity Through Promoting Apoptosis and Inhibiting Angiogenesis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common tumors worldwide with high prevalence and lethality. Due to insidious onset and lack of early symptoms, most HCC patients are diagnosed at advanced stages without adequate methods but systemic therapies. PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the progression and development of HCC. Aberrant activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway is involved in diverse biological processes, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion and angiogenesis. Therefore, the development of PI3K-targeted inhibitors is of great significance for the treatment of HCC. DHW-208 is a novel 4-aminoquinazoline derivative pan-PI3K inhibitor. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic efficacy of DHW-208 in HCC and investigate its underlying mechanism. DHW-208 could inhibit the proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis of HCC through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in vitro. Consistent with the in vitro results, in vivo studies demonstrated that DHW-208 elicits an antitumor effect by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR-signaling pathway with a high degree of safety in HCC. Therefore, DHW-208 is a candidate compound to be developed as a small molecule PI3K inhibitor for the treatment of HCC, and our study provides a certain theoretical basis for the treatment of HCC and the development of PI3K inhibitors.

GC-MS/MS Quantification of EGFR Inhibitors, β-Sitosterol, Betulinic Acid, (+) Eriodictyol, (+) Epipinoresinol, and Secoisolariciresinol, in Crude Extract and Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Thonningia sanguinea

Medicinal plants are widely used in folk medicine to treat various diseases. Thonningia sanguinea Vahl is widespread in African traditional medicine, and exhibits antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer activities. T. sanguinea is a source of phytomedicinal agents that have previously been isolated and structurally elucidated. Herein, gas chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was used to quantify epipinoresinol, β-sitosterol, eriodictyol, betulinic acid, and secoisolariciresinol contents in the methanolic crude extract and its ethyl acetate fraction for the first time. The ethyl acetate fraction was rich in epipinoresinol, eriodictyol, and secoisolariciresinol at concentrations of 2.3, 3.9, and 2.4 mg/g of dry extract, respectively. The binding interactions of these compounds with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were computed using a molecular docking study. The results revealed that the highest binding affinities for the EGFR signaling pathway were attributed to eriodictyol and secoisolariciresinol, with good binding energies of −19.93 and −16.63 Kcal/mol, respectively. These compounds formed good interactions with the key amino acid Met 769 as the co-crystallized ligand. So, the ethyl acetate fraction of T. sanguinea is a promising adjuvant therapy in cancer treatments.

Design, Synthesis, and Molecular Modeling Studies of a Novel Benzimidazole as an Aromatase Inhibitor

In this study, a series of novel 1,3,4-oxadiazole-benzimidazole derivatives were designed and synthesized. Their cytotoxic activities against five cancer cell lines, including A549, MCF-7, C6, HepG2, and HeLa, were evaluated by the MTT assay. The compounds 5b,c showed satisfactory potencies with much higher anticancer activity in comparison to the reference drug doxorubicin against the studied cancer cell lines. In vitro, enzymatic inhibition assays of aromatase (ARO) enzymes were performed. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and binding free energy analyses were used to better understand the structure-activity connections and mechanism of action of the aromatase inhibitors. Two types of satisfactory 3D-QSAR (CoMFA and CoMSIA) models were generated, to predict the inhibitory activities of the novel inhibitors. Molecular docking studies were also carried out to find their binding sites and types of their interactions with the aromatase enzyme. Additionally, molecular dynamics simulations were performed to explore the most likely binding modes of compounds 5b,c with CYP19A1.

Synthesis, X-ray Single-Crystal Analysis, and Anticancer Activity Evaluation of New Alkylsulfanyl-Pyridazino[4,5-b]indole Compounds as Multitarget Inhibitors of EGFR and Its Downstream PI3K-AKT Pathway

The alkylation of 3,5-dihydro-4H-pyridazino[4,5-b]indole-4-thione with benzyl bromide, ethyl chloroacetate, and allyl bromide in the presence of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) yielded new alkylsulfanylpyridazino[4,5-b]indole derivatives (i.e., compounds 4–6). Hydrazinolysis of ester 6 resulted in hydrazide 7. The structure of compound 6 was verified by X-ray single-crystal analysis. Among the synthesized compounds, compound 6 exhibited the most promising cytotoxicity toward MCF-7 cells with an IC50 value of 12 µM. It showed potential inhibition activity toward EGFR, PI3K, and AKT in MCF-7 cells, with 0.26-, 0.49-, and 0.31-fold reductions in concentration compared to an untreated control. Additionally, it showed apoptosis-inducing activity in MCF-7 cells (47.98-fold); overall apoptosis increased to 38.87% compared to 0.81% in the untreated control, which disrupted the cell cycle at pre-G1 and S phases. Moreover, compound 6 exhibited good binding affinities toward the tested proteins (EGFR, PI3K, and AKT) and had binding energies ranging from −15.87 to −24.87 Kcal/mol. It also formed good interactions with essential amino acids inside the binding sites. Hence, compound 6 is recommended as an anti-breast cancer chemotherapeutic due to its effects on the EGFR-PI3K-AKT pathway.

New 1,3,4-oxadiazoles linked with the 1,2,3-triazole moiety as antiproliferative agents targeting the EGFR tyrosine kinase

A series of 1,3,4-oxadiazole-1,2,3-triazole hybrids bearing different pharmacophoric moieties has been designed and synthesized. Their antiproliferative activity was evaluated against four human cancer cell lines (Panc-1, MCF-7, HT-29, and A-549) using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. The preliminary activity test displayed that the most active compounds, 6d, 6e, and 8a-e, suppressed cancer cell growth (GI₅₀  = 0.23-2.00 µM) comparably to erlotinib (GI₅₀  = 0.06 µM). Compounds 6d, 6e, and 8a-e inhibited the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR-TK) at IC₅₀  = 0.11-0.73 µM, compared to erlotinib (IC₅₀  = 0.08 ± 0.04 µM). The apoptotic mechanism revealed that the most active hybrid 8d induced expression levels of caspase-3, caspase-9, and cytochrome-c in the human cancer cell line Panc-1 by 7.80-, 19.30-, and 13-fold higher than doxorubicin. Also, 8d increased the Bax level by 40-fold than doxorubicin, along with decreasing Bcl-2 levels by 6.3-fold. Cell cycle analysis after treatment of Panc-1 cells with hybrid 8d revealed a high proportion of cell accumulation (41.53%) in the pre-G1 phase, indicating cell cycle arrest at the G1 transition. Computational docking of the 8d and 8e hybrids with the EGFR binding site revealed their ability to bind with EGFR similar to erlotinib. Finally, in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion/pharmacokinetic studies for the most active hybrids are discussed.

Green Process for the Synthesis of 3-Amino-2-methyl-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Synthones and Amides Thereof:DNA Photo-Disruptive and Molecular Docking Studies

Eleven 3-amino-2-methyl-quinazolin-4(3H)-ones have been synthesized, in good to excellent yields, via their corresponding benzoxazinones using an efficient tandem microwave-assisted green process. Representative acetamides have been thermally derived from their functional free 3-amino group, whereas for the synthesis of various arylamides, a novel green microwave-assisted protocol has been developed, which involved the attack of hydrazides on benzoxazinones. Eight out of the eleven 3-amino-2-methyl-quinazolin-4(3H)-ones were found photo-active towards plasmid DNA under UVB, and four under UVA irradiation. Amongst all acetamides, only the 6-nitro derivative retained activity both under UVB and UVA irradiation, whereas the 6-bromo-substituted one was active only under UVB. 3-arylamido-6-bromo derivatives exhibited dramatically decreased photo-activity; however, all 3-arylamido-6-nitro compounds developed extraordinary activity, even at concentrations as low as 1μM, which was enhanced compared to their parent 3-amino-2-methyl-6-nitro-quinazolinone. Molecular docking studies were indicative of satisfactory binding to DNA and correlated to the presented photo-activity. Since quinazolinones are known “privileged” pharmacophores for anticancer and antimicrobial activities, the present study gives information on turning “on” and “off” photosensitization on various derivatives which are often used as synthones for drug development, when chromophores and auxochromes are incorporated or being functionalized. Thus, certain compounds may lead to the development of novel photo-chemo or photodynamic therapeutics.

The Antiproliferative and Apoptotic Effects of a Novel Quinazoline Carrying Substituted-Sulfonamides: In Vitro and Molecular Docking Study

In order to investigate for a new effective and safe anticancer drug, we synthesized a novel series of quinazoline containing biologically active substituted-sulfonamide moiety at 3- position 4a-n. The structure of the newly prepared compounds was proved by microanalysis, IR, ¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR and mass spectral data. All the synthesized compounds were evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxic activity in numerous cancer cell lines including A549, HepG-2, LoVo and MCF-7 and normal HUVEC cell line. The two most active compounds 4d and 4f were then tested for their apoptosis induction using DNA content and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining. Moreover, apoptosis initiation was also confirmed using RT-PCR and Western blot. To further understand the binding preferences of quinazoline sulfonamides, docking simulations were used. Among the fourteen new synthesized compounds, we found that compounds 4d and 4f exerted the strongest cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 2.5 and 5 μM, respectively. Flow cytometry data revealed the ability of compounds 4d and 4f to mediate apoptosis and arrest cell cycle growth at G1 phase. Furthermore, RT-PCR and Western blot results suggested that both 4d and 4f activates apoptotic cell death pathway in MCF-7 cells. Molecular docking assessments indicated that compounds 4d and 4f fit perfectly into Bcl2's active site. Based on the biological properties, we conclude that both compounds 4d and 4f could be used as a new type of anticancer agent, which provides a scientific basis for further research into the treatment of cancer.

Design and synthesis of new bis(1,2,4-triazolo[3,4-b][1,3,4]thiadiazines) and bis((quinoxalin-2-yl)phenoxy)alkanes as anti-breast cancer agents through dual PARP-1 and EGFR targets inhibition

A number of new 1,ω-bis((acetylphenoxy)acetamide)alkanes 5a–f were prepared then their bromination using NBS furnished the novel bis(2-bromoacetyl)phenoxy)acetamides 6a–f. Reaction of 6a–f with 4-amino-5-substituted-4H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiol 7a–d and with o-phenylenediamine derivatives 9a and b afforded the corresponding bis(1,2,4-triazolo[3,4-b][1,3,4]thiadiazine) derivatives 8a–l and bis(quinoxaline) derivatives 10a–e in good yields. The cytotoxicity of the synthesized compounds as well as apoptosis induction through PARP-1 and EGFR as molecular targets was evaluated. Three compounds, 8d, 8i and 8l, exhibited much better cytotoxic activities against MDA-MB-231 than the drug Erlotinib. Interestingly, compound 8i induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells by 38-fold compared to the control arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M phase, and its treatment upregulated P53, Bax, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 gene levels, while it downregulated the Bcl2 level. Compound 8i exhibited promising dual enzyme inhibition of PARP-1 (IC₅₀ = 1.37 nM) compared to Olaparib (IC₅₀ = 1.49 nM), and EGFR (IC₅₀ = 64.65 nM) compared to Erlotinib (IC₅₀ = 80 nM). These results agreed with the molecular docking studies that highlighted the binding disposition of compound 8i inside the PARP-1 and EGFR protein active sites. Hence, compound 8i may serve as a potential anti-breast cancer agent.

A series of bis(triazolothiadiazines) and bis(quinoxalines) were synthesized and tested for their cytotoxicity and apoptosis-induction through PARP-1 and EGFR as molecular targets. Compound 8i exhibited high cytotoxic activity and promising dual enzyme inhibition.

In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Anti-Lung Cancer Activity of Artemesia judaica L. Crude Extract Combined with LC-MS/MS Metabolic Profiling, Docking Simulation and HPLC-DAD Quantification

Artemisia judaica L. (Family: Asteraceae) exhibited antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of A. judaica ethanolic extract was screened against a panel of cancer cell lines. The results revealed its cytotoxic activity against a lung cancer (A549) cell line with a promising IC50 of 14.2 μg/mL compared to doxorubicin as a standard. This was confirmed through the downregulation of antiapoptotic genes, the upregulation of proapoptotic genes, and the cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. Further in vivo study showed that a solid tumor mass was significantly reduced, with a tumor inhibition ratio of 54% relative to doxorubicin therapy in a Xenograft model. From a chemical point of view, various classes of natural products have been identified by liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The docking study of the detected metabolites approved their cytotoxic activity through their virtual binding affinity towards the cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK-2) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) active sites. Finally, A. judaica is a fruitful source of polyphenols that are well-known for their antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. As such, the previously reported polyphenols with anti-lung cancer activity were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). Rutin, quercetin, kaempferol, and apigenin were detected at concentrations of 6 mg/gm, 0.4 mg/gm, 0.36 mg/gm, and 3.9 mg/gm of plant dry extract, respectively. It is worth noting that kaempferol and rutin are reported for the first time. Herein, A. judaica L. may serve as an adjuvant therapy or a promising source of leading structures in drug discovery for lung cancer treatment.

Topo II inhibition and DNA intercalation by new phthalazine-based derivatives as potent anticancer agents: design, synthesis, anti-proliferative, docking, and in vivo studies

This research presents the design and synthesis of a novel series of phthalazine derivatives as Topo II inhibitors, DNA intercalators, and cytotoxic agents. In vitro testing of the new compounds against HepG-2, MCF-7, and HCT-116 cell lines confirmed their potent cytotoxic activity with low IC₅₀ values. Topo II inhibition and DNA intercalating activities were evaluated for the most cytotoxic members. IC₅₀ values determination demonstrated Topo II inhibitory activities and DNA intercalating affinities of the tested compounds at a micromolar level. Amongst, compound 9d was the most potent member. It inhibited Topo II enzyme at IC₅₀ value of 7.02 ± 0.54 µM with DNA intercalating IC₅₀ of 26.19 ± 1.14 µM. Compound 9d was then subjected to an in vivo antitumor examination. It inhibited tumour proliferation reducing solid tumour volume and mass. Additionally, it restored liver enzymes, proteins, and CBC parameters near-normal, indicating a remarkable amelioration in their functions along with histopathological examinations.