Probing conformational changes in neurotransmitter transporters: a structural context

Regulation of Glutamate, GABA and Dopamine Transporter Uptake, Surface Mobility and Expression

Neurotransmitter transporters limit spillover between synapses and maintain the extracellular neurotransmitter concentration at low yet physiologically meaningful levels. They also exert a key role in providing precursors for neurotransmitter biosynthesis. In many cases, neurons and astrocytes contain a large intracellular pool of transporters that can be redistributed and stabilized in the plasma membrane following activation of different signaling pathways. This means that the uptake capacity of the brain neuropil for different neurotransmitters can be dynamically regulated over the course of minutes, as an indirect consequence of changes in neuronal activity, blood flow, cell-to-cell interactions, etc. Here we discuss recent advances in the mechanisms that control the cell membrane trafficking and biophysical properties of transporters for the excitatory, inhibitory and modulatory neurotransmitters glutamate, GABA, and dopamine.

Conformational analysis of octopamine and synephrine in the gas phase

Four and six conformers of the neurotransmitters octopamine and synephrine, respectively, have been identified in the gas phase using a laser ablation device in combination with a molecular-beam Fourier transform microwave spectrometer operating in the 4-10 GHz frequency range. The identification of all of the conformers was based on a comparison of the experimental rotational and (14)N quadrupole coupling constants with those predicted by ab initio calculations, as well as the relative values of their electric dipole moment components. The conformational preferences have been rationalized in terms of the various intramolecular forces operating in the different conformers of the studied molecules. All observed species are characterized by an intramolecular hydrogen bond of the type O-H···N established in the side chain of the neurotransmitters, which adopts an extended disposition in their most stable forms. For conformers with a folded side chain, an extra N-H···π hydrogen-bond-type interaction is established between the amino group and the π system of the aromatic ring.

Homology modeling of human γ-butyric acid transporters and the binding of pro-drugs 5-aminolevulinic acid and methyl aminolevulinic acid used in photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a safe and effective method currently used in the treatment of skin cancer. In ALA-based PDT, 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), or ALA esters, are used as pro-drugs to induce the formation of the potent photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). Activation of PpIX by light causes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and toxic responses. Studies have indicated that ALA and its methyl ester (MAL) are taken up into the cells via γ-butyric acid (GABA) transporters (GATs). Uptake via GATs into peripheral sensory nerve endings may also account for one of the few adverse side effects of ALA-based PDT, namely pain. In the present study, homology models of the four human GAT subtypes were constructed using three x-ray crystal structures of the homologous leucine transporter (LeuT) as templates. Binding of the native substrate GABA and the possible substrates ALA and MAL was investigated by molecular docking of the ligands into the central putative substrate binding sites in the outward-occluded GAT models. Electrostatic potentials (ESPs) of the putative substrate translocation pathway of each subtype were calculated using the outward-open and inward-open homology models. Our results suggested that ALA is a substrate of all four GATs and that MAL is a substrate of GAT-2, GAT-3 and BGT-1. The ESP calculations indicated that differences likely exist in the entry pathway of the transporters (i.e. in outward-open conformations). Such differences may be exploited for development of inhibitors that selectively target specific GAT subtypes and the homology models may hence provide tools for design of therapeutic inhibitors that can be used to reduce ALA-induced pain.

Mutational analysis of the high-affinity zinc binding site validates a refined human dopamine transporter homology model

The high-resolution crystal structure of the leucine transporter (LeuT) is frequently used as a template for homology models of the dopamine transporter (DAT). Although similar in structure, DAT differs considerably from LeuT in a number of ways: (i) when compared to LeuT, DAT has very long intracellular amino and carboxyl termini; (ii) LeuT and DAT share a rather low overall sequence identity (22%) and (iii) the extracellular loop 2 (EL2) of DAT is substantially longer than that of LeuT. Extracellular zinc binds to DAT and restricts the transporter‚s movement through the conformational cycle, thereby resulting in a decrease in substrate uptake. Residue H293 in EL2 praticipates in zinc binding and must be modelled correctly to allow for a full understanding of its effects. We exploited the high-affinity zinc binding site endogenously present in DAT to create a model of the complete transmemberane domain of DAT. The zinc binding site provided a DAT-specific molecular ruler for calibration of the model. Our DAT model places EL2 at the transporter lipid interface in the vicinity of the zinc binding site. Based on the model, D206 was predicted to represent a fourth co-ordinating residue, in addition to the three previously described zinc binding residues H193, H375 and E396. This prediction was confirmed by mutagenesis: substitution of D206 by lysine and cysteine affected the inhibitory potency of zinc and the maximum inhibition exerted by zinc, respectively. Conversely, the structural changes observed in the model allowed for rationalizing the zinc-dependent regulation of DAT: upon binding, zinc stabilizes the outward-facing state, because its first coordination shell can only be completed in this conformation. Thus, the model provides a validated solution to the long extracellular loop and may be useful to address other aspects of the transport cycle.

The dopamine transporter (DAT) regulates dopaminergic neurotransmission in the brain and is implicated in numerous human disease states. DAT is unique among the monoamine neurotransmitter transporter family because its substrate transport is inhibited by extracellular zinc. DAT homology models rely upon the crystal structure of LeuT solved in 2005. LeuT and DAT share a relatively low overall sequence identity of 22%. In addition, the length of the second extracellular loop of DAT exceeds that of LeuT by 21 residues. The zinc binding site cannot be directly modeled from the LeuT template alone because of these differences. Current available homology models of DAT focused on substrate or inhibitor binding rather than on the second extracellular loop. We exploited the specificity of the zinc binding site to build and calibrate a DAT homology model of the complete transmembrane domain. Our model predicted that the zinc binding site in DAT consists of four zinc co-ordinating residues rather than three that had been previously identified. We verified this hypothesis by site-directed mutagenesis and uptake inhibition studies.

SLC6 neurotransmitter transporters: structure, function, and regulation

The neurotransmitter transporters (NTTs) belonging to the solute carrier 6 (SLC6) gene family (also referred to as the neurotransmitter-sodium-symporter family or Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters) comprise a group of nine sodium- and chloride-dependent plasma membrane transporters for the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), dopamine, and norepinephrine, and the amino acid neurotransmitters GABA and glycine. The SLC6 NTTs are widely expressed in the mammalian brain and play an essential role in regulating neurotransmitter signaling and homeostasis by mediating uptake of released neurotransmitters from the extracellular space into neurons and glial cells. The transporters are targets for a wide range of therapeutic drugs used in treatment of psychiatric diseases, including major depression, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy. Furthermore, psychostimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines have the SLC6 NTTs as primary targets. Beginning with the determination of a high-resolution structure of a prokaryotic homolog of the mammalian SLC6 transporters in 2005, the understanding of the molecular structure, function, and pharmacology of these proteins has advanced rapidly. Furthermore, intensive efforts have been directed toward understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in regulation of the activity of this important class of transporters, leading to new methodological developments and important insights. This review provides an update of these advances and their implications for the current understanding of the SLC6 NTTs.

The substrate-driven transition to an inward-facing conformation in the functional mechanism of the dopamine transporter

Background

The dopamine transporter (DAT), a member of the neurotransmitter:Na⁺ symporter (NSS) family, terminates dopaminergic neurotransmission and is a major molecular target for psychostimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine, and for the treatment of attention deficit disorder and depression. The crystal structures of the prokaryotic NSS homolog of DAT, the leucine transporter LeuT, have provided critical structural insights about the occluded and outward-facing conformations visited during the substrate transport, but only limited clues regarding mechanism. To understand the transport mechanism in DAT we have used a homology model based on the LeuT structure in a computational protocol validated previously for LeuT, in which steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations guide the substrate along a pathway leading from the extracellular end to the intracellular (cytoplasmic) end.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Key findings are (1) a second substrate binding site in the extracellular vestibule, and (2) models of the conformational states identified as occluded, doubly occupied, and inward-facing. The transition between these states involve a spatially ordered sequence of interactions between the two substrate-binding sites, followed by rearrangements in structural elements located between the primary binding site and the cytoplasmic end. These rearrangements are facilitated by identified conserved hinge regions and a reorganization of interaction networks that had been identified as gates.

Conclusions/Significance

Computational simulations supported by information available from experiments in DAT and other NSS transporters have produced a detailed mechanistic proposal for the dynamic changes associated with substrate transport in DAT. This allosteric mechanism is triggered by the binding of substrate in the S2 site in the presence of the substrate in the S1 site. Specific structural elements involved in this mechanism, and their roles in the conformational transitions illuminated here describe, a specific substrate-driven allosteric mechanism that is directly amenable to experiment as shown previously for LeuT.

The binding sites for benztropines and dopamine in the dopamine transporter overlap

Analogs of benztropines (BZTs) are potent inhibitors of the dopamine transporter (DAT) but are less effective than cocaine as behavioral stimulants. As a result, there have been efforts to evaluate these compounds as leads for potential medication for cocaine addiction. Here we use computational modeling together with site-directed mutagenesis to characterize the binding site for BZTs in DAT. Docking into molecular models based on the structure of the bacterial homolog LeuT supported a BZT binding site that overlaps with the substrate-binding pocket. In agreement, mutations of residues within the pocket, including(2) Val152(3.46) to Ala or Ile, Ser422(8.60) to Ala and Asn157(3.51) to Cys or Ala, resulted in decreased affinity for BZT and the analog JHW007, as assessed in [(3)H]dopamine uptake inhibition assays and/or [(3)H]CFT competition binding assay. A putative polar interaction of one of the phenyl ring fluorine substituents in JHW007 with Asn157(3.51) was used as a criterion for determining likely binding poses and establish a structural context for the mutagenesis findings. The analysis positioned the other fluorine-substituted phenyl ring of JHW007 in close proximity to Ala479(10.51)/Ala480(10.52) in transmembrane segment (TM) 10. The lack of such an interaction for BZT led to a more tilted orientation, as compared to JHW007, bringing one of the phenyl rings even closer to Ala479(10.51)/Ala480(10.52). Mutation of Ala479(10.51) and Ala480(10.52) to valines supported these predictions with a larger decrease in the affinity for BZT than for JHW007. Summarized, our data suggest that BZTs display a classical competitive binding mode with binding sites overlapping those of cocaine and dopamine.

Molecular dynamics of leucine and dopamine transporter proteins in a model cell membrane lipid bilayer

The dopamine transporter (DAT) operates via facilitated diffusion, harnessing an inward Na(+) gradient to drive dopamine from the extracellular synaptic cleft to the neuron interior. The DAT is relevant to central nervous system disorders such as Parkinson disease and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and is the primary site of action for the abused psychostimulants cocaine and amphetamines. Crystallization of a DAT homolog, the bacterial leucine transporter LeuT, provided the first reliable 3-D DAT template. Here, the LeuT crystal structure and the DAT molecular model have been combined with their respective substrates, leucine and dopamine, in lipid bilayer molecular dynamics simulations toward tracking substrate movement along the protein's substrate/ion permeation pathway. Specifically, movement of residue pairs that comprise the "external gate" was followed as a function of substrate presence. The transmembrane (TM) 1 arginine-TM 10 aspartate strut formed less readily in DAT compared with LeuT, with or without substrate present. For LeuT but not DAT, the addition of substrate enhanced the chances of forming the TM 1-10 bridge. Also, movement of the fourth extracellular loop EL-4 in the presence of substrate was more pronounced for DAT, the EL-4 unwinding to a degree. The overall similarity between the LeuT and DAT molecular dynamics simulations indicated that LeuT was a legitimate model to guide DAT structure-function predictions. There were, nevertheless, differences significant enough to allow for DAT-unique insights, which may include how cocaine, methylphenidate (Ritalin, NIDA Drug Supply, Rockville, MD), and other DAT blockers are not recognized as substrates even though they can access the primary substrate binding pocket. Proteins 2010. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Substrate-dependent proton antiport in neurotransmitter:sodium symporters

Neurotransmitter:sodium symporters (NSS), targets for psychostimulants and therapeutic drugs, play a critical role in neurotransmission. Whereas eukaryotic NSS exhibit Cl⁻-dependent transport, bacterial NSS feature Cl⁻-independent substrate transport. Recently we showed in LeuT and Tyt1 that mutation of an acidic side chain near one of the Na⁺-binding sites renders substrate binding and/or transport Cl⁻ dependent. We reasoned that the negative charge - provided either by Cl⁻ or by the transporter itself - is required for substrate translocation. Here we show that Tyt1 reconstituted in proteoliposomes is strictly dependent on the Na⁺ gradient and is stimulated by an inside negative membrane potential and by an inversely-oriented H⁺ gradient. Remarkably, Na⁺/substrate symport elicited H⁺ efflux, indicative of Na⁺/substrate symport-coupled H⁺ antiport. Mutations that render the transport phenotype Cl⁻-dependent essentially abolish the pH dependence. We propose unifying features of charge balance by all NSS members with similar mechanistic features but with different molecular solutions.

Emerging structure-function relationships defining monoamine NSS transporter substrate and ligand affinity

Monoamine transporters are a group of transmembrane neurotransmitter sodium symporter (NSS) transporters that play a crucial role in regulating biogenic monoamine concentrations at peripheral and central synapses. Given the key role played by serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline in addictive and disease states, structure-function studies have been conducted to help guide the development of improved central nervous system therapeutics. Extensive pharmacological, immunological and biochemical studies, in conjunction with three-dimensional homology modeling, have been performed to structurally and functionally characterise the monoamine transporter substrate permeation pathway, substrate selectivity, and binding sites for ions, substrates and inhibitors at the molecular level. However, only recently has it been possible to start to construct an accurate molecular interaction network for the monoamine transporters and their corresponding substrates and inhibitors. Crystal structures of Aquifex aeolicus leucine transporter (LeuT(Aa)), a homologous protein to monoamine transporters that has been experimentally demonstrated to share similar structural folds with monoamine transporters, have been determined in complex with amino acids and inhibitors. The molecular interactions of leucine and tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) has supported many of the predictions based on the mutational studies. Models constructed from LeuT(Aa) are now allowing a rational approach to further clarify the molecular determinants of NSS transporter-ligand complexes, and potentially the ability to better manipulate drug specificity and affinity. In this review, we compare the structure-function relationships of other SLC6 NSS family transporters with monoamine transporters, and discuss possible mechanisms involved in substrate binding and transport, and modes of inhibition by TCAs.

Anomalous dopamine release associated with a human dopamine transporter coding variant

Dopamine (DA) signaling at synapses is tightly coordinated through opposing mechanisms of vesicular fusion-mediated DA release and transporter-mediated DA clearance. Altered brain DA signaling is suspected to underlie multiple brain disorders, including schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, bipolar disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We identified a pedigree containing two male children diagnosed with ADHD who share a rare human DA transporter (DAT; SLC6A3) coding variant, Ala559Val. Among >1000 control and affected subjects, the Val559 variant has only been isolated once previously, in a female subject with bipolar disorder. Although hDAT Ala559Val supports normal DAT protein and cell surface expression, as well as normal DA uptake, the variant exhibits anomalous DA efflux from DA-loaded cells. We also demonstrate that hDAT Ala599Val exhibits increased sensitivity to intracellular Na(+), but not intracellular DA, and displays exaggerated DA efflux at depolarized potentials. Remarkably, the two most common ADHD medications, amphetamine and methylphenidate, both block hDAT Ala559Val-mediated DA efflux, whereas these drugs have opposite actions at wild-type hDAT. Our findings reveal that DA efflux, typically associated with amphetamine-like psychostimulants, can be produced through a heritable change in hDAT structure. Because multiple gene products are known to coordinate to support amphetamine-mediated DA efflux, the properties of hDAT Ala559Val may have broader significance in identifying a new mechanism through which DA signaling disorders arise. Additionally, they suggest that block of inappropriate neurotransmitter efflux may be an unsuspected mechanism supporting the therapeutic actions of existing transporter-directed medications.

The mechanism of a neurotransmitter:sodium symporter--inward release of Na+ and substrate is triggered by substrate in a second binding site

Eukaryotic neurotransmitter:sodium symporters (NSSs), targets for antidepressants and psychostimulants, terminate neurotransmission by sodium-driven reuptake. The crystal structure of LeuT(Aa), a prokaryotic NSS homolog, revealed an occluded state in which one leucine and two Na(+) ions are bound, but provided limited clues to the molecular mechanism of transport. Using steered molecular dynamics simulations, we explored the substrate translocation pathway of LeuT. We identified a second substrate binding site located in the extracellular vestibule comprised of residues shown recently to participate in binding tricyclic antidepressants. Binding and flux experiments showed that the two binding sites can be occupied simultaneously. The substrate in the secondary site allosterically triggers intracellular release of Na(+) and substrate from the primary site, thereby functioning as a "symport effector." Because tricyclic antidepressants bind differently to this secondary site, they do not promote substrate release from the primary site and thus act as symport uncouplers and inhibit transport.

An intracellular interaction network regulates conformational transitions in the dopamine transporter

Neurotransmitter:sodium symporters (NSS)(1) mediate sodium-dependent reuptake of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft and are targets for many psychoactive drugs. The crystal structure of the prokaryotic NSS protein, LeuT, was recently solved at high resolution; however, the mechanistic details of regulation of the permeation pathway in this class of proteins remain unknown. Here we combine computational modeling and experimental probing in the dopamine transporter (DAT) to demonstrate the functional importance of a conserved intracellular interaction network. Our data suggest that a salt bridge between Arg-60 in the N terminus close to the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane segment (TM) 1 and Asp-436 at the cytoplasmic end of TM8 is stabilized by a cation-pi interaction between Arg-60 and Tyr-335 at the cytoplasmic end of TM6. Computational probing illustrates how the interactions may determine the flexibility of the permeation pathway, and mutagenesis within the network and results from assays of transport, as well as the state-dependent accessibility of a substituted cysteine in TM3, support the role of this network in regulating access between the substrate binding site and the intracellular milieu. The mechanism that emerges from these findings may be unique to the NSS family, where the local disruption of ionic interactions modulates the transition of the transporter between the outward- and inward-facing conformations.

Dopamine transporter comparative molecular modeling and binding site prediction using the LeuT(Aa) leucine transporter as a template

Pharmacological and behavioral studies indicate that binding of cocaine and the amphetamines by the dopamine transporter (DAT) protein is principally responsible for initiating the euphoria and addiction associated with these drugs. The lack of an X-ray crystal structure for the DAT or any other member of the neurotransmitter:sodium symporter (NSS) family has hindered understanding of psychostimulant recognition at the atomic level; structural information has been obtained largely from mutagenesis and biophysical studies. The recent publication of a crystal structure for the bacterial leucine transporter LeuT(Aa), a distantly related NSS family homolog, provides for the first time a template for three-dimensional comparative modeling of NSS proteins. A novel computational modeling approach using the capabilities of the Molecular Operating Environment program MOE 2005.06 in conjunction with other comparative modeling servers generated the LeuT(Aa)-directed DAT model. Probable dopamine and amphetamine binding sites were identified within the DAT model using multiple docking approaches. Binding sites for the substrate ligands (dopamine and amphetamine) overlapped substantially with the analogous region of the LeuT(Aa) crystal structure for the substrate leucine. The docking predictions implicated DAT side chains known to be critical for high affinity ligand binding and suggest novel mutagenesis targets in elucidating discrete substrate and inhibitor binding sites. The DAT model may guide DAT ligand QSAR studies, and rational design of novel DAT-binding therapeutics.

Membrane Mobility and Microdomain Association of the Dopamine Transporter Studied with Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy and Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching

To investigate microdomain association of the dopamine transporter (DAT), we employed FCS (fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) and FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching). In non-neuronal cells (HEK293), FCS measurements revealed for the YFP-DAT (DAT tagged with yellow fluorescent protein) a diffusion coefficient (D) of approximately 3.6 x 10(-9) cm2/s, consistent with a relatively freely diffusible protein. In neuronally derived cells (N2a), we were unable to perform FCS measurements on plasma membrane-associated protein due to photobleaching, suggesting partial immobilization. This was supported by FRAP measurements that revealed a lower D and a mobile fraction of the YFP-DAT in N2a cells compared to HEK293 cells. Comparison with the EGFP-EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) and the EGFP-beta2AR (beta2 adrenergic receptor) demonstrated that this observation was DAT specific. Both the cytoskeleton-disrupting agent cytochalasin D and the cholesterol-depleting agent methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (mbetaCD) increased the lateral mobility of the YFP-DAT but not that of the EGFP-EGFR. The DAT associated in part with membrane raft markers both in the N2a cells and in rat striatal synaptosomes as assessed by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Raft association was further confirmed in the N2a cells by cholera toxin B patching. It was, moreover, observed that cholesterol depletion, and thereby membrane raft disruption, decreased both the Vmax and KM values for [3H]dopamine uptake without altering DAT surface expression. In summary, we propose that association of the DAT with lipid microdomains in the plasma membrane and/or the cytoskeleton serves to regulate both the lateral mobility of the transporter and its transport capacity.

Homology Modeling of the Serotonin Transporter: Insights into the Primary Escitalopram-binding Site

The serotonin transporter (SERT) is one of the neurotransmitter transporters that plays a critical role in the regulation of endogenous amine concentrations and therefore is an important target for therapeutic agents affecting the central nervous system. The recently published, high resolution X-ray structure of the closely related amino acid transporter, Aquifex aeolicus leucine transporter (LeuT), provides an opportunity to develop a three-dimensional model of the structure of SERT. We present herein a homology model of SERT using LeuT as the template and containing escitalopram as a bound ligand. Our model explains selectivities known from mutational studies and varying ligand data, which are discussed and illustrated in the paper.

Monitoring the function of membrane transport proteins in detergent-solubilized form

Transport proteins constitute approximately 10% of most proteomes and play vital roles in the translocation of solutes across membranes of all organisms. Their (dys)function is implicated in many disorders, making them frequent targets for pharmacotherapy. The identification of substrates for members of this large protein family, still replete with many orphans of unknown function, has proven difficult, in part because high-throughput screening is greatly complicated by endogenous transporters present in many expression systems. In addition, direct structural studies require that transporters be extracted from the membrane with detergent, thereby precluding transport measurements because of the lack of a vectorial environment and necessitating reconstitution into proteoliposomes for activity measurements. Here, we describe a direct scintillation proximity-based radioligand-binding assay for determining transport protein function in crude cell extracts and in purified form. This rapid and universally applicable assay with advantages over cell-based platforms will greatly facilitate the identification of substrates for many orphan transporters and allows monitoring the function of transport proteins in a nonmembranous environment.

Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets

What is a drug target? And how many such targets are there? Here, we consider the nature of drug targets, and by classifying known drug substances on the basis of the discussed principles we provide an estimation of the total number of current drug targets.

Phosphorylation of the Norepinephrine Transporter at Threonine 258 and Serine 259 Is Linked to Protein Kinase C-mediated Transporter Internalization

Recently, we have demonstrated the phosphorylation- and lipid raft-mediated internalization of the native norepinephrine transporter (NET) following protein kinase C (PKC) activation (Jayanthi, L. D., Samuvel, D. J., and Ramamoorthy, S. (2004) J. Biol. Chem. 279, 19315-19326). Here we tested an hypothesis that PKC-mediated phosphorylation of NET is required for transporter internalization. Phosphoamino acid analysis of 32P-labeled native NETs from rat placental trophoblasts and heterologously expressed wild type human NET (WT-hNET) from human placental trophoblast cells revealed that the phorbol ester (beta-PMA)-induced phosphorylation of NET occurs on serine and threonine residues. Beta-PMA treatment inhibited NE transport, reduced plasma membrane hNET levels, and stimulated hNET phosphorylation in human placental trophoblast cells expressing the WT-hNET. Substance P-mediated activation of the G alpha(q)-coupled human neurokinin 1 (hNK-1) receptor coexpressed with the WT-hNET produced effects similar to beta-PMA via PKC stimulation. In striking contrast, an hNET double mutant harboring T258A and S259A failed to show NE uptake inhibition and plasma membrane redistribution by beta-PMA or SP. Most interestingly, the plasma membrane insertion of the WT-hNET and hNET double mutant were not affected by beta-PMA. Although the WT-hNET showed increased endocytosis and redistribution from caveolin-rich plasma membrane domains following beta-PMA treatment, the hNET double mutant was completely resistant to these PKC-mediated effects. In addition, the PKC-induced phosphorylation of hNET double mutant was significantly reduced. In the absence of T258A and S259A mutations, alanine substitution of all other potential phosphosites within the hNET did not block PKC-induced phosphorylation and down-regulation. These results suggest that Thr-258 and Ser-259 serve as a PKC-specific phospho-acceptor site and that phosphorylation of this motif is linked to PKC-induced NET internalization.

A comprehensive structure-based alignment of prokaryotic and eukaryotic neurotransmitter/Na+ symporters (NSS) aids in the use of the LeuT structure to probe NSS structure and function

The recently elucidated crystal structure of a prokaryotic member of the neurotransmitter/sodium symporter (NSS) family (Yamashita et al., 2005) is a major advance toward understanding structure-function relationships in this important class of transporters. To aid in the generalization of these results, we present here a comprehensive sequence alignment of all known prokaryotic and eukaryotic NSS proteins, based on the crystal structure of the leucine transporter from Aquifex aeolicus (LeuT). Regions of low sequence identity between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transporters were aligned with the aid of a number of bioinformatics tools, and the resulting alignments were validated by comparison with experimental data. In a number of regions, including the transmembrane segments 4, 5, and 9 as well as extracellular loops 2, 3, and 4, our alignment differs from the one proposed previously [Nature (Lond) 437: 215-223, 2005]. Important similarities and differences among the sequences of NSS proteins in regions likely to determine selectivity in substrate binding and mechanisms of transport regulation are discussed in the context of the LeuT structure and the alignment.

State-dependent conformations of the translocation pathway in the tyrosine transporter Tyt1, a novel neurotransmitter:sodium symporter from Fusobacterium nucleatum

The gene of a novel prokaryotic member (Tyt1) of the neurotransmitter:sodium symporter (NSS) family has been cloned from Fusobacterium nucleatum. In contrast to eukaryotic and some prokaryotic NSSs, which contain 12 transmembrane domains (TMs), Tyt1 contains only 11 TMs, a characteristic shared by approximately 70% of prokaryotic NSS homologues. Nonetheless upon heterologous expression in an engineered Escherichia coli host, Tyt1 catalyzes robust Na+-dependent, highly selective l-tyrosine transport. Genetic engineering of Tyt1 variants devoid of cysteines or with individually retained endogenous cysteines at positions 18 or 238, at the cytoplasmic ends of TM1 and TM6, respectively, preserved normal transport activity. Whereas cysteine-less Tyt1 was resistant to the inhibitory effect of sulfhydryl-alkylating reagents, N-ethylmaleimide inhibited transport by Tyt1 variants containing either one or both of the endogenous cysteines, and this inhibition was altered by the substrates sodium and tyrosine, consistent with substrate-induced dynamics in the transport pathway. Our findings support a binding model of Tyt1 function in which an ordered sequence of substrate-induced structural changes reflects distinct conformational states of the transporter. This work identifies Tyt1 as the first functional bacterial NSS member putatively consisting of only 11 TMs and shows that Tyt1 is a suitable model for the study of NSS dynamics with relevance to structure/function relationships of human NSSs, including the dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters.

Dopamine uptake and cocaine binding mechanisms: The involvement of charged amino acids from the transmembrane domains of the human dopamine transporter

The wild type human dopamine transporter (DAT) and five DAT mutants were transfected into COS-7 cells and their ability to uptake dopamine or to bind cocaine was examine three days later. In each mutant, a single charged amino acid, located in areas that initial hydrophobic analysis had indicated were DAT transmembrane domains was substituted by alanine. Mutants used in this study were lysines 257 and 525 (termed K257A and K525A), arginines 283 and 521 (termed R283A and R521A), and glutamate 491 (termed E491A). Dopamine affinity was significantly enhanced in the K257A and R283A mutants, and the IC(50) for displacement of the radioactive cocaine analog 2 beta-carbomethoxy-3 beta-(4-fluorophenyl)tropane (CFT) by cocaine was significantly elevated in the E491A mutant. All mutants displayed a reduction or complete loss of the maximal velocity (V(m)) of dopamine transport.

ADHD and the dopamine transporter: are there reasons to pay attention?

The catecholamine dopamine (DA) plays an important role as a neurotransmitter in the brain in circuits linked to motor function, reward, and cognition. The presynaptic DA transporter (DAT) inactivates DA following release and provides a route for non-exocytotic DA release (efflux) triggered by amphetamines. The synaptic role of DATs first established through antagonist studies and more recently validated through mouse gene-knockout experiments, raises questions as to whether altered DAT structure or regulation support clinical disorders linked to compromised DA signaling, including drug abuse, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). As ADHD appears to have highly heritable components and the most commonly prescribed therapeutics for ADHD target DAT, studies ranging from brain imaging to genomic and genetic analyses have begun to probe the DAT gene and its protein for possible contributions to the disorder and/or its treatment. In this review, after a brief overview of ADHD prevalence and diagnostic criteria, we examine the rationale and experimental findings surrounding a role for human DAT in ADHD. Based on the available evidence from our lab and labs of workers in the field, we suggest that although a common variant within the human DAT (hDAT) gene (SLC6A3) is unlikely to play a major role in the ADHD, contributions of hDAT to risk maybe most evident in phenotypic subgroups. The in vitro and in vivo validation of functional variants, pursued for contributions to endophenotypes in a within family approach, may help elucidate DAT and DA contributions to ADHD and its treatment.

Intramolecular cross-linking in a bacterial homolog of mammalian SLC6 neurotransmitter transporters suggests an evolutionary conserved role of transmembrane segments 7 and 8

The extracellular concentration of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA and glycine is tightly controlled by plasma membrane transporters belonging to the SLC6 gene family. A very large number of putative transport proteins with a remarkable homology to the SLC6 transporters has recently been identified in prokaryotes. Here we have probed structural relationships in a 'microdoman' corresponding to the extracellular ends of transmembrane segments (TM) 7 and 8 in one of these homologs, the tryptophan transporter TnaT from Symbiobacterium thermophilum. We found that simultaneous - but not individual - substitution of Ala286 at the top of TM7 and Met311 at the top of TM8 with cysteines conferred sensitivity to submicromolar concentrations of Hg(2+) as assessed in a [(3)H]tryptophan uptake assay. Because Hg(2+) can cross-link pairs of cysteines, this suggests close proximity between TM 7 and 8 in the tertiary structure of TnaT as previously suggested for the mammalian counterparts. Furthermore, the inhibition of uptake upon cross-linking the two cysteines provides indirect support for a conserved conformational role of these transmembrane domains in the transport process. It was not possible, however, to transfer to TnaT binding sites for another metal ion, Zn(2+), that we previously engineered in the dopamine (DAT) and GABA (GAT-1) transporters between TM 7 and 8. This suggests that the structure of the TM7/8 microdomain is not identical with that of DAT and GAT-1. Hence, our data also emphasize possible structural differences that should be taken into account when interpreting future data on bacterial homologs of the SLC6 transporters.

Recognition of psychostimulants, antidepressants, and other inhibitors of synaptic neurotransmitter uptake by the plasma membrane monoamine transporters

The plasma membrane monoamine transporters terminate neurotransmission by removing dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin from the synaptic cleft between neurons. Specific inhibitors for these transporters, including the abused psychostimulants cocaine and amphetamine and the tricyclic and SSRI classes of antidepressants, exert their physiological effects by interfering with synaptic uptake and thus prolonging the actions of the monoamine. Pharmacological, biochemical, and immunological characterization of the many site-directed, chimeric, and deletion mutants generated for the plasma membrane monoamine transporters have revealed much about the commonalities and dissimilarities between transporter substrate, ion, and inhibitor binding sites. Mutations that alter the binding affinity or substrate uptake inhibition potency of inhibitors by at least 3-fold are the focus of this review. These findings are clarifying the picture regarding substrate uptake inhibitor/transporter protein interactions at the level of the drug pharmacophore and the amino acid residue, information necessary for rational design of novel medications for substance abuse and a variety of psychiatric disorders.

Regulation of monoamine transporters: influence of psychostimulants and therapeutic antidepressants

Synaptic neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS) requires the precise control of the duration and the magnitude of neurotransmitter action at specific molecular targets. At the molecular level, neurotransmitter signaling is dynamically regulated by a diverse set of macromolecules including biosynthetic enzymes, secretory proteins, ion channels, pre- and postsynaptic receptors and transporters. Monoamines, 5-hydroxytryptamine or serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) play an important modulatory role in the CNS and are involved in numerous physiological functions and pathological conditions. Presynaptic plasma membrane transporters for 5-HT (SERT), NE (NET), and DA (DAT), respectively, control synaptic actions of these monoamines by rapidly clearing the released amine. Monoamine transporters are the sites of action for widely used antidepressants and are high affinity molecular targets for drugs of abuse including cocaine, amphetamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxymetamphetamine (MDMA) "Ecstasy." Monoamine transporters also serve as molecular gateways for neurotoxins. Emerging evidence indicates that regulation of transporter function and surface expression can be rapidly modulated by "intrinsic" transporter activity itself, and antidepressant and psychostimulant drugs that block monoamine transport have a profound effect on transporter regulation. Therefore, disregulations in the functioning of monoamine transporters may underlie many disorders of transmitter imbalance such as depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. This review integrates recent progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms of monoamine transporter regulation, in particular, posttranscriptional regulation by phosphorylation and trafficking linked to cellular protein kinases, protein phosphatases, and transporter interacting proteins. The review also discusses the possible role of psychostimulants and antidepressants in influencing monoamine transport regulation.

A pincer-like configuration of TM2 in the human dopamine transporter is responsible for indirect effects on cocaine binding

The second transmembrane segment (TM2) of DAT and other neurotransmitter transporters has been proposed to play a role in oligomerization as well as in cocaine binding. In an attempt to determine whether TM2 contributes to the binding site and/or transport pathway of DAT, we mutated to cysteine, one at a time, 25 residues in TM2 - from Phe98 to Gln122 - in an appropriate DAT background construct. Four of the mutants, F98C, G110C, P112C, and E117C, did not express at the cell surface, and G121C was inactive, despite its presence on the cell surface. Of the 21 mutants that expressed, none of the substituted cysteines reacted with MTSEA biotin-CAP, and none of the 20 functional mutants was sensitive to MTSEA or MTSET. Thus, TM2 does not appear to be water-accessible, based both on the lack of functional effects of charged MTS derivatives, and on the biochemical determination of lack of reaction with a biotinylated MTS derivative. This leads to the conclusion that TM2 does not contribute directly to the substrate-binding site or the transport pathway, and suggests that the observed effect of mutations in this region on cocaine binding is indirect. Three mutants, M106C, V107C and I108C, were crosslinked by treatment with HgCl(2). This crosslinking was inhibited by the presence of the cocaine analogue MFZ 2-12, likely due to a conformational rearrangement in TM2 upon inhibitor binding. However, the lack of crosslinking of cysteines substituted for Leu99, Leu113 and Leu120 - three of the residues that along with Met106 form a leucine heptad repeat in TM2 - makes it unlikely that this leucine repeat plays a role in symmetrical TM2 dimerization. Importantly, a high-resolution structure of LeuT, a sodium-dependent leucine transporter that is sufficiently homologous to DAT to suggest a high degree of structural similarity, became available while this manuscript was under review. We have taken advantage of this structure to explore further and interpret our experimental results in a rigorous structural context.

A comprehensive atlas of the topography of functional groups of the dopamine transporter

The neuronal dopamine transporter (DAT) is a transmembrane transporter that clears DA from the synaptic cleft. Knowledge of DAT functional group topography is a prerequisite for understanding the molecular basis of transporter function, the actions of psychostimulant drugs, and mechanisms of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Information concerning the molecular interactions of drugs of abuse (such as cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine) with the DAT at the functional group level may also aid in the development of compounds useful as therapeutic agents for the treatment of drug abuse. This review will provide a cumulative and comprehensive focus on the amino acid functional group topography of the rat and human DATs, as revealed by protein chemical modification and the techniques of site-directed mutagenesis. The results from these studies, represented mostly by site-directed mutagenesis, can be classified into several main categories: modifications without substantial affects on substrate transport, DAT membrane expression, or cocaine analog binding; those modifications which alter both substrate transport and cocaine analog binding; and those that affect DAT membrane expression. Finally, some modifications can selectively affect either substrate transport or cocaine analog binding. Taken together, these literature results show that domains for substrates and cocaine analogs are formed by interactions with multiple and sometimes distinct DAT functional groups.

Zinc potentiates an uncoupled anion conductance associated with the dopamine transporter

Binding of Zn(2+) to an endogenous binding site in the dopamine transporter (DAT) leads to inhibition of dopamine (DA) uptake and enhancement of carrier-mediated substrate efflux. To elucidate the molecular mechanism for this dual effect, we expressed the DAT and selected mutants in Xenopus laevis oocytes and applied the two-electrode voltage clamp technique together with substrate flux studies employing radiolabeled tracers. Under voltage clamp conditions we found that Zn(2+) (10 mum) enhanced the current induced by both DA and amphetamine. This was not accompanied by a change in the uptake rate but by a marked increase in the charge/DA flux coupling ratio as assessed from concomitant measurements of [(3)H]DA uptake and currents in voltage-clamped oocytes. These data suggest that Zn(2+) facilitates an uncoupled ion conductance mediated by DAT. Whereas this required substrate in the wild type (WT), we observed that Zn(2+) by itself activated such a conductance in a previously described mutant (Y335A). This signifies that the conductance is not strictly dependent on an active transport process. Ion substitution experiments in Y335A, as well as in WT, indicated that the uncoupled conductance activated by Zn(2+) was mainly carried by Cl(-). Experiments in oocytes under non-voltage-clamped conditions revealed furthermore that Zn(2+) could enhance the depolarizing effect of substrates in oocytes expressing WT. The data suggest that by potentiating an uncoupled Cl(-) conductance, Zn(2+) is capable of modulating the membrane potential of cells expressing DAT and as a result cause simultaneous inhibition of uptake and enhancement of efflux.

Predicting functional sites in proteins: site-specific evolutionary models and their application to neurotransmitter transporters

Currently there exist several computational methods for predicting the functional sites in a set of homologous proteins based on their sequences. Due to difficulties in defining the functional site in a protein, it is not trivial to compare the performance of these methods, evaluate their limitations and quantify improvements by new approaches. Here, we use extensive mutation data from two proteins, Lac repressor and subtilisin, to perform such an analysis. Along with the evaluation of existing approaches, we describe a site class model of evolution as a tool to predict functional sites in proteins. The results indicate that this model, which simulates the evolution process at the amino acid level using site-specific substitution matrices, provides the most accurate information on functional sites in a given protein family. Secondly, we present an application of this model to neurotransmitter transporters, a superfamily of proteins of which we have limited experimental knowledge. Based on this application we present testable hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action of these proteins.

Acute cardiovascular effects of sibutramine in conscious rats

Sibutramine is a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, used in the treatment of obesity. In this study, cardiovascular effects of sibutramine (0.9, 3, or 9 mg kg(-1) i.p.) were measured in conscious Sprague-Dawley rats, in the absence and presence of beta- and/or alpha-adrenoceptor antagonism (with propranolol and/or phentolamine, respectively). Sibutramine caused pressor and tachycardic effects, with celiac and mesenteric vasoconstrictions, and hyperemic hindquarters vasodilatation. Pretreatment with propranolol inhibited the tachycardic and hindquarters vasodilator effect of sibutramine, whereas phentolamine inhibited the pressor and vasoconstrictor effects of sibutramine. In the presence of phentolamine, sibutramine caused hyperemic mesenteric vasodilatation. In preconstricted, isolated, mesenteric vessels, sibutramine and its metabolites BTS 54505 (N-desmethylsibutramine) and BTS 54354 (N-didesmethylsibutramine) (10 microM) produced significant vasodilations. Neither sibutramine nor BTS 54505 enhanced vessel sensitivity to norepinephrine, whereas BTS 54 354 produced a significant leftward shift in the concentration-response curve to norepinephrine. Collectively, the results indicate that the overt cardiovascular effects of sibutramine involve alpha-adrenoceptor-mediated celiac and mesenteric vasoconstrictions, and beta-adrenoceptor-mediated hindquarters vasodilatation and tachycardia. The mesenteric vasodilator response to sibutramine, seen in the presence of phentolamine, may be a direct effect of the drug and/or its metabolites, on vessel tone. The cardiovascular effects of sibutramine in vivo may be secondary to inhibition of peripheral and/or central reuptake of monoamines by the metabolites BTS 54354 and/or BTS 54505. It remains to explain why BTS 54354, but not BTS 54505, enhanced norepinephrine sensitivity in vitro, because both metabolites are potent inhibitors of the norepinephrine transporter.