Glucocorticoid interaction with aggression in non-mammalian vertebrates: reciprocal action

Validating a Mixed Qualitative Behavioral Assessment for Adult Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) I: Baseline Monitoring

Traditional qualitative behavioral assessments (QBAs) employ a unique whole-animal approach to measure animal welfare with a focus on affective elements. QBAs require comprehensive validation including reliability across multiple raters, subjects, and institutions, as well as consistency with other validated assessment measures. In 2016, the Detroit Zoological Society developed and began internally validating the Gorilla Behavioral Assessment Tool (GBAT), followed by internal applications of a revised GBAT in 2021. This study continues these validation efforts through the multi-institutional application of the GBAT in baseline conditions. Five zoological institutions participated in this study, creating a study population of 15 adult male western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and more than 40 staff. Care staff collected fecal samples from each gorilla, and two staff from each institution completed the GBAT for each gorilla daily. Three of the five institutions collected focal behavioral data. We calculated inter-rater reliability using Gwet's AC2, establishing near-perfect reliability across all tested items. We found no significant variation in reliability between institutions. We used the behavioral data and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites for construct validation. A combination of Spearman's correlations and generalized linear mixed models demonstrated statistically significant relationships between seven of the 12 tested GBAT items and other established measures. Integration of physical and behavioral indicators of welfare alongside affective indicators alters the GBAT from a traditional QBA into what we propose as a mixed or M-QBA. Our work demonstrates how an M-QBA allows for a more comprehensive assessment of animal welfare with implications for broader research applications.

Seasonal variation in aggression and physiological stress in wild female and male redfronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons)

Intraspecific competition with fellow group members represents an unavoidable cost of group living. However, the causes of competition can vary among group members, and ecological and reproductive challenges faced by individuals throughout the year can trigger physical conflicts and or physiological responses. To date, few studies in mammals have described both physiological and behavioral responses to competition simultaneously across the year in both males and females. However, such an approach may shed light on ultimate drivers of sex-specific competitive strategies. In this six-year study on multiple groups of wild redfronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons), a primate species from Madagascar, we intended to identify the relative importance of feeding vs. reproductive competition for both sexes. We combined data on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGCM) levels, a proxy for the physiological stress response, with behavioral observations on agonistic interactions during ecologically and socially challenging phases across the year. We found that while FGCM levels increased in both sexes with decreasing fruit consumption, this increase was not accompanied by concomitant changes in agonistic behavior. Female aggression and FGCM levels instead peaked during the birth season, while for males, aggression remained fairly constant across the year. Our results suggest that redfronted lemurs have mechanisms to avoid direct competition through aggression at times when individuals may need to conserve energy.

Infanticide is driven by unfamiliarity with offspring location and associated with androgenic shifts in mimic poison frogs

Infanticide is widespread across the animal kingdom, but the physiological drivers of infanticide versus care or neglect are relatively unexplored. Here, we identified salient environmental and physiological antecedents of infanticide in the mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator), a biparental amphibian. We explored potential environmental cues influencing infant-directed behavior by evaluating changes in the frequency of food provisioning and tadpole mortality after either cross-fostering tadpoles between family units or displacing tadpoles within the terraria of their parents. We found that changes in offspring location reduce care and increase infanticide. Specifically, parents fed their displaced offspring less and, in some instances, tadpole mortality increased. We also investigated whether care and infanticide were related to changes in steroid hormone concentrations in an unfamiliar setting. Infanticide of fertilized eggs and hatchlings in the new territory included cannibalism and was associated with lower testosterone concentrations, but not with changes in corticosterone. Overall, our results support earlier findings that familiarity with offspring location drives parental investment in poison frogs, while indicating an association between low androgen levels and infanticidal behavior in an amphibian.

Effects of Peripubertal Experiences on Competitive Behavior in Male Rats at Different Stages of Adulthood

Past studies in animal models have extensively investigated the impact of early life experiences on behavioral development, yet relatively few have specifically examined the implications of peripubertal experiences on the evolution of competitive behavior across distinct stages of adulthood. In the current research, we probed potential differences in competitive behavior during emerging adulthood (3 months old) and middle adulthood (12 months old) in 81 Sprague-Dawley male rats exposed to three different peripubertal (postnatal Days 37-60) environments: an enriched environment (EE), a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) condition, and a control condition. Anxiety-like behavior served as a positive control in our study. Results revealed significant variations in competitive behavior among the groups during emerging adulthood. The EE group displayed the least anxiety and outperformed their peers in food-reward-oriented competition, whereas the CUMS group excelled in status-driven, agonistic competition. However, these behavioral differentiations gradually attenuated by middle adulthood, at which point the control group began to show an advantage. Our findings suggest that although peripubertal experiences significantly shape competitive behavior in the emerging adulthood stage, this effect diminishes over time and is nearly non-detectable during mid-adulthood, underscoring the fluidity of behavioral development and demonstrating that the effects of peripubertal experiences can be modulated by subsequent life experiences.

Infanticide is driven by unfamiliarity with offspring location and associated with androgenic shifts in mimic poison frogs

Infanticide is widespread across the animal kingdom, but the physiological drivers of infanticide versus care or neglect are relatively unexplored. Here, we identified salient environmental and physiological antecedents of infanticide in the mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator), a biparental amphibian in which female parents feed their tadpoles unfertilized eggs. Specifically, we explored potential environmental cues influencing infant-directed behavior by evaluating changes in the frequency of food provisioning and tadpole mortality after either cross-fostering tadpoles between family units or displacing tadpoles within the terraria of their parents. We found that changes in offspring location reduce care and increase infanticide. Specifically, parents fed their displaced offspring less and, in some instances, tadpole mortality increased. We also investigated whether care and infanticide were related to changes in steroid hormone concentrations in an unfamiliar setting. Infanticide of fertilized eggs and hatchlings in the new territory included cannibalism and was associated with lower testosterone concentrations, but not with changes in corticosterone. Overall, our results support earlier findings that familiarity with offspring location drives parental investment in poison frogs, while indicating an association between low androgen levels and infanticidal behavior in an amphibian.

Prior experience with behavioral control over stress facilitates social dominance

Dominance status has extensive effects on physical and mental health, and an individual's relative position can be shaped by experiential factors. A variety of considerations suggest that the experience of behavioral control over stressors should produce winning in dominance tests and that winning should blunt the impact of later stressors, as does prior control. To investigate the interplay between competitive success and stressor control, we first examined the impact of stressor controllability on subsequent performance in a warm spot competition test modified for rats. Prior experience of controllable, but not physically identical uncontrollable, stress increased later effortful behavior and occupation of the warm spot. Controllable stress subjects consistently ranked higher than did uncontrollable stress subjects. Pharmacological inactivation of the prelimbic (PL) cortex during behavioral control prevented later facilitation of dominance. Next, we explored whether repeated winning experiences produced later resistance against the typical sequelae of uncontrollable stress. To establish dominance status, triads of rats were given five sessions of warm spot competition. The development of stable dominance was prevented by reversible inactivation of the PL or NMDA receptor blockade in the dorsomedial striatum. Stable winning blunted the later stress-induced increase in dorsal raphe nucleus serotonergic activity, as well as prevented uncontrollable stress-induced social avoidance. In contrast, endocrine and neuroimmune responses to uncontrollable stress were unaffected, indicating a selective impact of prior dominance. Together, these data demonstrate that instrumental control over stress promotes later dominance, but also reveal that winning experiences buffer against the neural and behavioral outcomes of future adversity.

Expanding the frame around social dynamics and glucocorticoids: From hierarchies within the nest to competitive interactions among species

The effect of the social environment on individual state or condition has largely focused on glucocorticoid levels (GCs). As metabolic hormones whose production can be influenced by nutritional, physical, or psychosocial stressors, GCs are a valuable (though singular) measure that may reflect the degree of "stress" experienced by an individual. Most work to date has focused on how social rank influences GCs in group-living species or how predation risk influences GCs in prey. This work has been revealing, but a more comprehensive assessment of the social environment is needed to fully understand how different features of the social environment influence GCs in both group living and non-group living species and across life history stages. Just as there can be intense within-group competition among adult conspecifics, it bears appreciating there can also be competition among siblings from the same brood, among adult conspecifics that do not live in groups, or among heterospecifics. In these situations, dominance hierarchies typically emerge, albeit, do dominants or subordinate individuals or species have higher GCs? We examine the degree of support for hypotheses derived from group-living species about whether differential GCs between dominants and subordinates reflect the "stress of subordination" or "costs of dominance" in these other social contexts. By doing so, we aim to test the generality of these two hypotheses and propose new research directions to broaden the lens that focuses on social hierarchies and GCs.

Glucocorticoids and Aggression: A Tripartite Interaction

The effects of glucocorticoids on aggression can be conceptualized based on its mechanisms of action. These hormones can affect cell function non-genomically within minutes, primarily by affecting the cell membrane. Overall, such effects are activating and promote both metabolic preparations for the fight and aggressive behavior per se. Chronic increases in glucocorticoids activate genomic mechanisms and are depressing overall, including the inhibition of aggressive behavior. Finally, excessive stressors trigger epigenetic phenomena that have a large impact on brain programming and may also induce the reprogramming of neural functions. These induce qualitative changes in aggression that are deemed abnormal in animals, and psychopathological and criminal in humans. This review aims at deciphering the roles of glucocorticoids in aggression control by taking in view the three mechanisms of action often categorized as acute, chronic, and toxic stress based on the duration and the consequences of the stress response. It is argued that the tripartite way of influencing aggression can be recognized in all three animal, psychopathological, and criminal aggression and constitute a framework of mechanisms by which aggressive behavior adapts to short-term and log-term changes in the environment.

Circulating hormones and dominance status predict female behavior during courtship in a lekking species

Female competitive behaviors during courtship can have substantial fitness consequences yet we know little about the physiological and social mechanisms underlying these behaviors - particularly for females of polygynous lek mating species. We explored the hormonal and social drivers of female intersexual and intrasexual behavior during courtship by males in a captive population of Indian peafowl. We investigated whether (1) female non-stress induced circulating estradiol (E2) and corticosterone (CORT) levels or (2) female dominance status in a dyad predict female solicitation behavior. We also tested whether female circulating E2 and CORT predict dominant females' aggressive behaviors toward subordinate females in the courtship context. Our findings demonstrate that females with higher levels of circulating E2 as well as higher levels of circulating CORT solicit more courtships from males. Dominant females also solicit more courtships from males than subordinate females. Female intrasexual aggressive behaviors during courtship, however, were not associated with circulating levels of E2 or CORT. Overall, we conclude that circulating steroid hormones in conjunction with social dominance might play a role in mediating female behaviors associated with competition for mates. Experimental manipulation and measures of hormonal flexibility throughout the breeding season in relation to competitive and sexual behaviors will be necessary to further examine the link between hormonal mechanisms and female behavior in polygynous lekking systems.

Non-invasive sampling of water-borne hormones demonstrates individual consistency of the cortisol response to stress in laboratory zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Glucocorticoid (GC) stress hormones are well-known for their impact on phenotypic traits ranging from immune function to behaviour and cognition. For that reason, consistent aspects of an individual's physiological stress response (i.e. GC responsiveness) can predict major elements of life-history trajectory. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) emerge as a promising model to study such consistent trait correlations, including the development of individual stress coping styles, i.e. consistent associations between physiological and behavioral traits. However, consistency in GC responsiveness of this popular animal model remains to be confirmed. Such a study has so far been hampered by the small-bodied nature and insufficient blood volume of this species to provide repeated measurements of circulating GCs. Here, we adopted a technique that allows for repeated, non-invasive sampling of individual zebrafish by quantifying GCs from holding water. Our findings indicate consistency of the magnitude of post-stress GC production over several consecutive stress events in zebrafish. Moreover, water-borne GCs reflect individual variation in GC responsiveness with the strongest consistency seen in males.

Hot-headed peckers: thermographic changes during aggression among juvenile pheasants (Phasianus colchicus)

In group-living vertebrates, dominance status often covaries with physiological measurements (e.g. glucocorticoid levels), but it is unclear how dominance is linked to dynamic changes in physiological state over a shorter, behavioural timescale. In this observational study, we recorded spontaneous aggression among captive juvenile pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) alongside infrared thermographic measurements of their external temperature, a non-invasive technique previously used to examine stress responses in non-social contexts, where peripheral blood is redirected towards the body core. We found low but highly significant repeatability in maximum head temperature, suggesting individually consistent thermal profiles, and some indication of lower head temperatures in more active behavioural states (e.g. walking compared to resting). These individual differences were partly associated with sex, females being cooler on average than males, but unrelated to body size. During pairwise aggressive encounters, we observed a non-monotonic temperature change, with head temperature dropping rapidly immediately prior to an attack and increasing rapidly afterwards, before returning to baseline levels. This nonlinear pattern was similar for birds in aggressor and recipient roles, but aggressors were slightly hotter on average. Our findings show that aggressive interactions induce rapid temperature changes in dominants and subordinates alike, and highlight infrared thermography as a promising tool for investigating the physiological basis of pecking orders in galliforms. This article is part of the theme issue 'The centennial of the pecking order: current state and future prospects for the study of dominance hierarchies'.

Rank- and sex-specific differences in the neuroendocrine regulation of glucocorticoids in a wild group-living fish

Individuals that live in groups experience different challenges based on their social rank and sex. Glucocorticoids have a well-established role in coordinating responses to challenges and glucocorticoid levels often vary between ranks and sexes. However, the neuroendocrine mechanisms regulating glucocorticoid dynamics in wild groups are poorly understood, making it difficult to determine the functional consequences of differences in glucocorticoid levels. Therefore, we observed wild social groups of a cooperatively breeding fish (Neolamprologus pulcher) and evaluated how scale cortisol content (an emerging method to evaluate cortisol dynamics in fishes) and expression of glucocorticoid-related genes varied across group members. Scale cortisol was detectable in ~50% of dominant males (7/17) and females (7/15)-but not in any subordinates (0/16)-suggesting that glucocorticoid levels were higher in dominants. However, the apparent behavioural and neuroendocrine factors regulating cortisol levels varied between dominant sexes. In dominant females, higher cortisol was associated with greater rates of territory defense and increased expression of corticotropin-releasing factor in the preoptic and hypothalamic regions of the brain, but these patterns were not observed in dominant males. Additionally, transcriptional differences in the liver suggest that dominant sexes may use different mechanisms to cope with elevated cortisol levels. While dominant females appeared to reduce the relative sensitivity of their liver to cortisol (fewer corticosteroid receptor transcripts), dominant males appeared to increase hepatic cortisol breakdown (more catabolic enzyme transcripts). Overall, our results offer valuable insights on the mechanisms regulating rank- and sex-based glucocorticoid dynamics, as well as the potential functional outcomes of these differences.

Fish self-awareness: limits of current knowledge and theoretical expectations

Animal self-awareness is divided into three levels: bodily, social, and introspective self-awareness. Research has focused mainly on the introspection of so-called higher organisms such as mammals. Herein, we turn our attention to fish and provide opinions on their self-awareness based on a review of the scientific literature. Our specific aims are to discuss whether fish (A) could have a neural substrate supporting self-awareness and whether they display signs of (B) social and (C) introspective self-awareness. The present knowledge does not exclude the possibility that fish could have a simple neocortex or other structures that support certain higher cognitive processes, as the function of the primate cerebral cortex can be replaced by other neurological structures. Fish are known to display winner, loser, and audience effects, which could be interpreted as signs of social self-awareness. The audience effect may be explained not only by ethological cost and benefit theory but also by the concept of public self-awareness, which comes from human studies. The behavioural and neural manifestations of depression may be induced in fish under social subordination and may be viewed as certain awareness of a social status. The current findings on fish introspective self-awareness have been debated in the scientific community and, therefore, demand replication to provide more evidence. Further research is needed to verify the outlined ideas; however, the current knowledge indicates that fish are capable of certain higher cognitive processes, which raises questions and implications regarding ethics and welfare in fish-related research and husbandry.

Effects of air pollution exposure on social behavior: a synthesis and call for research

BACKGROUND

There is a growing literature from both epidemiologic and experimental animal studies suggesting that exposure to air pollution can lead to neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, we suggest that effects of air pollutant exposure on the brain may be even broader, with the potential to affect social decision-making in general.

METHODS

We discuss how the neurobiological substrates of social behavior are vulnerable to air pollution, then briefly present studies that examine the effects of air pollutant exposure on social behavior-related outcomes.

RESULTS

Few experimental studies have investigated the effects of air pollution on social behavior and those that have focus on standard laboratory tests in rodent model systems. Nonetheless, there is sufficient evidence to support a critical need for more research.

CONCLUSION

For future research, we suggest a comparative approach that utilizes diverse model systems to probe the effects of air pollution on a wider range of social behaviors, brain regions, and neurochemical pathways.

Evolution of stress responses refine mechanisms of social rank

Social rank functions to facilitate coping responses to socially stressful situations and conditions. The evolution of social status appears to be inseparably connected to the evolution of stress. Stress, aggression, reward, and decision-making neurocircuitries overlap and interact to produce status-linked relationships, which are common among both male and female populations. Behavioral consequences stemming from social status and rank relationships are molded by aggressive interactions, which are inherently stressful. It seems likely that the balance of regulatory elements in pro- and anti-stress neurocircuitries results in rapid but brief stress responses that are advantageous to social dominance. These systems further produce, in coordination with reward and aggression circuitries, rapid adaptive responding during opportunities that arise to acquire food, mates, perch sites, territorial space, shelter and other resources. Rapid acquisition of resources and aggressive postures produces dominant individuals, who temporarily have distinct fitness advantages. For these reasons also, change in social status can occur rapidly. Social subordination results in slower and more chronic neural and endocrine reactions, a suite of unique defensive behaviors, and an increased propensity for anxious and depressive behavior and affect. These two behavioral phenotypes are but distinct ends of a spectrum, however, they may give us insights into the troubling mechanisms underlying the myriad of stress-related disorders to which they appear to be evolutionarily linked.

Neural and endocrine responses to social stress differ during actual and virtual aggressive interactions or physiological sign stimuli

Neural and endocrine responses provide quantitative measures that can be used for discriminating behavioral output analyses. Experimental design differences often make it difficult to compare results with respect to the mechanisms producing behavioral actions. We hypothesize that comparisons of distinctive behavioral paradigms or modification of social signals can aid in teasing apart the subtle differences in animal responses to social stress. Eyespots are a unique sympathetically activated sign stimulus of the lizard Anolis carolinensis that influence aggression and social dominance. Eyespot formation along with measurements of central and plasma monoamines enable comparison of paired male aggressive interactions with those provoked by a mirror image. The results suggest that experiments employing artificial application of sign stimuli in dyadic interactions amplify behavioral, neural and endocrine responses, and foreshorten behavioral interactions compared to those that develop among pairs naturally. While the use of mirrors to induce aggressive behavior produces simulated interactions that appear normal, some behavioral, neural, and endocrine responses are amplified in these experiments as well. In contrast, mirror image interactions also limit the level of certain behavioral and neuroendocrine responses. As true social communication does not occur during interaction with mirror images, rank relationships can never be established. Multiple experimental approaches, such as combining naturalistic social interactions with virtual exchanges and/or manipulation of sign stimuli, can often provide added depth to understanding the motivation, context, and mechanisms that produce specific behaviors. The addition of endocrine and neural measurements helps identify the contributions of specific behavioral elements to the social processes proceeding.

Personality and physiological traits predict contest interactions in Kryptolebias marmoratus

Personality and physiological traits often have close relationships with dominance status, but the significance and/or direction of the relationships vary between studies. This study examines whether two personality traits (aggressiveness and boldness) and three physiological traits (testosterone and cortisol levels and oxygen consumption rates) are associated with contest decisions/performance using a mangrove killifish Kryptolebias marmoratus. The results show that individuals that attacked their own mirror images (an aggressiveness index) at higher rates or had higher levels of testosterone were more likely to attack their opponent and win non-escalated contests, while individuals that had higher levels of cortisol were more likely to lose. After the contests, (1) individuals that had attacked their opponents or won had higher post-contest oxygen consumption rates, and (2) individuals that had attacked their opponents also had higher post-contest levels of cortisol. Although no significant correlations were detected among pre-contest physiological traits, post-contest levels of cortisol were positively correlated with oxygen consumption rates. Overall, personality and physiological traits provide useful predictors for the fish's contest decisions/performance. Contest interactions subsequently modified post-contest physiological traits and potentially also promoted associations between them. Nevertheless, the fish's physiological traits remained rather consistent over the entire study period.

Associations between glucocorticoids and sociality across a continuum of vertebrate social behavior

The causes and consequences of individual differences in animal behavior and stress physiology are increasingly studied in wild animals, yet the possibility that stress physiology underlies individual variation in social behavior has received less attention. In this review, we bring together these study areas and focus on understanding how the activity of the vertebrate neuroendocrine stress axis (HPA-axis) may underlie individual differences in social behavior in wild animals. We first describe a continuum of vertebrate social behaviors spanning from initial social tendencies (proactive behavior) to social behavior occurring in reproductive contexts (parental care, sexual pair-bonding) and lastly to social behavior occurring in nonreproductive contexts (nonsexual bonding, group-level cooperation). We then perform a qualitative review of existing literature to address the correlative and causal association between measures of HPA-axis activity (glucocorticoid levels or GCs) and each of these types of social behavior. As expected, elevated HPA-axis activity can inhibit social behavior associated with initial social tendencies (approaching conspecifics) and reproduction. However, elevated HPA-axis activity may also enhance more elaborate social behavior outside of reproductive contexts, such as alloparental care behavior. In addition, the effect of GCs on social behavior can depend upon the sociality of the stressor (cause of increase in GCs) and the severity of stress (extent of increase in GCs). Our review shows that the while the associations between stress responses and sociality are diverse, the role of HPA-axis activity behind social behavior may shift toward more facilitating and less inhibiting in more social species, providing insight into how stress physiology and social systems may co-evolve.

Dominance relationships in Syrian hamsters modulate neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to social stress

Stress is a well-known risk factor for psychopathology and rodent models of social defeat have strong face, etiological, construct and predictive validity for these conditions. Syrian hamsters are highly aggressive and territorial, but after an acute social defeat experience they become submissive and no longer defend their home territory, even from a smaller, non-aggressive intruder. This defeat-induced change in social behavior is called conditioned defeat (CD). We have shown that dominant hamsters show increased neural activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) following social defeat stress and exhibit a reduced CD response at social interaction testing compared to subordinates. Although the vmPFC can inhibit the neuroendocrine stress response, it is unknown whether dominants and subordinates differ in stress-induced activity of the extended hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Here, we show that, following acute social defeat, dominants exhibit decreased submissive and defensive behavior compared to subordinates but do not differ from subordinates or social status controls (SSCs) in defeat-induced cortisol concentrations. Furthermore, both dominants and SSCs show greater corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression in the basolateral/central amygdala compared to subordinates, while there was no effect of social status on CRH mRNA expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus or bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Overall, status-dependent differences in the CD response do not appear linked to changes in stress-induced cortisol concentrations or CRH gene expression, which is consistent with the view that stress resilience is not a lack of a physiological stress response but the addition of stress coping mechanisms. Lay summary Dominant hamsters show resistance to the behavioral effects of acute social defeat compared to subordinates, but it is unclear whether social status modulates the neuroendocrine stress response in Syrian hamsters. This study indicates that dominant social status does not alter stress-induced activity of the extended hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which suggests that the ability of dominants to cope with social defeat stress is not associated with changes in their neuroendocrine stress response.

Territorial aggression in urban and rural Song Sparrows is correlated with corticosterone, but not testosterone

Urban songbirds of several species more vigorously defend their territories in response to conspecific song playback than do their rural counterparts, but the hormonal basis of this behavioral difference is unclear. It is well established in vertebrates that both testosterone and corticosterone affect the intensity of territoriality. Previous studies have found no evidence that initial (i.e., immediately following territorial challenge, but prior to restraint) plasma testosterone accounts for the elevated territorial aggression of urban birds. Determining if testosterone still contributes to urban-rural differences in territoriality requires also assessing males' abilities to transiently increase plasma testosterone (in response to an injection of gonadotropin-releasing hormone). We tested whether these hormones are correlated with the territorial response to conspecific song playback in urban and rural male Song Sparrows (Melospiza melodia) in Montgomery County, Virginia. We found that the elevated territorial aggression of urban sparrows was not related to variation in either initial plasma testosterone or the ability to transiently increase testosterone. In contrast, despite no overall habitat difference in initial corticosterone, levels of this hormone were positively correlated with territoriality in urban and rural sparrows. Furthermore, for a given level of corticosterone, urban sparrows were more territorially aggressive. Our findings suggest that initial corticosterone may either play a role in the regulation of persistent differences in territorial behavior between free-ranging urban and rural male Song Sparrows or be affected by the intensity of behavioral response to territorial challenge.

Stress-responsiveness influences baseline glucocorticoid levels: Revisiting the under 3min sampling rule

Plasma glucocorticoid (CORT) levels collected within 3min of capture are commonly believed to reflect pre-stressor, baseline CORT levels. Differences in these "baseline" values are often interpreted as reflecting differences in health, or the amount of social and environmental stress recently experienced by an individual. When interpreting "baseline" values it is generally assumed that any effect of capture-and-handling during the initial sampling period is small enough and consistent enough among individuals to not obscure pre-capture differences in CORT levels. However, plasma CORT increases in less than 3min post-capture in many free-living, endothermic species in which timing has been assessed. In addition, the rate of CORT secretion and the maximum level attained (i.e., the degree of stress-responsiveness) during a severe stressor often differs among individuals of the same species. In Florida scrub-jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens), an individual's stress-responsiveness during a 30min post-capture stressor is correlated with CORT levels in samples collected within 1.5min of capture, suggesting there is an intrinsic connection between stress-responsiveness and pre-capture CORT levels. Although differences in stress-responsiveness accounted for just 11% of the variance in these samples, on average, higher stress-responsive jays (top third of individuals) had baseline values twice that of lower stress-responsive jays (bottom third). Further, plasma CORT levels begin to increase around 2min post-capture in this species, but the rate of increase between 2 and 3min differs markedly with CORT increasing more rapidly in jays with higher stress-responsiveness. Together, these data indicate that baseline CORT values can be influenced by an individual's stress response phenotype and the differences due to stress-responsiveness can be exaggerated during sample collection. In some cases, the effects of differences in stress-responsiveness and the increase in CORT during sample collection could obscure, or supersede, differences in pre-capture plasma CORT levels that are caused by extrinsic factors.

Neuromolecular correlates of cooperation and conflict during territory defense in a cichlid fish

Cooperative behavior is widespread among animals, yet the neural mechanisms have not been studied in detail. We examined cooperative territory defense behavior and associated neural activity in candidate forebrain regions in the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. We find that a territorial male neighbor will engage in territory defense dependent on the perceived threat of the intruder. The resident male, on the other hand, engages in defense based on the size and behavior of his partner, the neighbor. In the neighbor, we find that an index of engagement correlates with neural activity in the putative homolog of the mammalian basolateral amygdala and in the preoptic area, as well as in preoptic dopaminergic neurons. In the resident, neighbor behavior is correlated with neural activity in the homolog of the mammalian hippocampus. Overall, we find distinct neural activity patterns between the neighbor and the resident, suggesting that an individual perceives and processes an intruder challenge differently during cooperative territory defense depending on its own behavioral role.

Putting the "Biology" Back into "Neurobiology": The Strength of Diversity in Animal Model Systems for Neuroscience Research

Current trends in neuroscience research have moved toward a reliance on rodent animal models to study most aspects of brain function. Such laboratory-reared animals are highly inbred, have been disengaged from their natural environments for generations and appear to be of limited predictive value for successful clinical outcomes. In this Perspective article, we argue that research on a rich diversity of animal model systems is fundamental to new discoveries in evolutionarily conserved core physiological and molecular mechanisms that are the foundation of human brain function. Analysis of neural circuits across phyla will reveal general computational solutions that form the basis for adaptive behavioral responses. Further, we stress that development of ethoexperimental approaches to improve our understanding of behavioral nuance will help to realign our research strategies with therapeutic goals and improve the translational validity of specific animal models. Finally, we suggest that neuroscience has a role in environmental conservation of habitat and fauna that will preserve and protect the ecological settings that drive species-specific behavioral adaptations. A rich biodiversity will enhance our understanding of human brain function and lead in unpredicted directions for development of therapeutic treatments for neurological disorders.

Hormones and the Evolution of Complex Traits: Insights from Artificial Selection on Behavior

Although behavior may often be a fairly direct target of natural or sexual selection, it cannot evolve without changes in subordinate traits that cause or permit its expression. In principle, changes in endocrine function could be a common mechanism underlying behavioral evolution because they are well positioned to mediate integrated responses to behavioral selection. More specifically, hormones can influence both motivational (e.g., brain) and performance (e.g., muscles) components of behavior simultaneously and in a coordinated fashion. If the endocrine system is often "used" as a general mechanism to effect responses to selection, then correlated responses in other aspects of behavior, life history, and organismal performance (e.g., locomotor abilities) should commonly occur because any cell with appropriate receptors could be affected. Ways in which behavior coadapts with other aspects of the phenotype can be studied directly through artificial selection and experimental evolution. Several studies have targeted rodent behavior for selective breeding and reported changes in other aspects of behavior, life history, and lower-level effectors of these organismal traits, including endocrine function. One example involves selection for high levels of voluntary wheel running, one aspect of physical activity, in four replicate High Runner (HR) lines of mice. Circulating levels of several hormones (including insulin, testosterone, thyroxine, triiodothyronine) have been characterized, three of which-corticosterone, leptin, and adiponectin-differ between HR and control lines, depending on sex, age, and generation. Potential changes in circulating levels of other behaviorally and metabolically relevant hormones, as well as in other components of the endocrine system (e.g., receptors), have yet to be examined. Overall, results to date identify promising avenues for further studies on the endocrine basis of activity levels.

Hormonal Responses to Noncontact Aggression in Convict Cichlid Fish

This study explored whether convict cichlid fish mount a hormonal response to aggressive encounters where dominance status remains unresolved. Hormone samples were collected at two time points before an aggressive interaction to obtain confinement-induced and baseline measures, and at one time point following a contest across a clear partition (experimental) or exposure to an opaque partition with an opponent on the opposite side (control). There was no overall significant effect of treatment (control vs. experimental) on hormone release rates but there were trends for cortisol and testosterone (T). A priori linear contrasts showed that individuals that engaged in aggressive interactions had lower postfight cortisol and T release rates than controls, suggesting that aggression, in this context, might attenuate the synthesis of both hormones. Cortisol decreased significantly between initial confinement and baseline, indicating that individuals habituate to the water-borne hormone collection procedure. Contrary to expectation, individuals with higher baseline T and 11-ketotestosterone (KT) release rates took longer to initiate conflict. None of the other measures of behavior were predicted by baseline hormone release rates, and contest behavior did not predict postfight hormone release rates. There was a significant positive relationship between KT and T at all time points. As with studies that employ mirror image stimulation, we found no hormonal response to unresolved contests despite high levels of aggressive behavior. Our study is unique because we demonstrate that animals engaged in conflict with live opponents also do not mount a significant hormonal response when clear dominance relationships are not established.

Interactions between Biliverdin, Oxidative Damage, and Spleen Morphology after Simulated Aggressive Encounters in Veiled Chameleons

Stressors frequently increase oxidative damage–unless organisms simultaneously mount effective antioxidant responses. One putative mitigative mechanism is the use of biliverdin, an antioxidant produced in the spleen during erythrocyte degradation. We hypothesized that both wild and captive-bred male veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), which are highly aggressive to conspecifics, would respond to agonistic displays with increased levels of oxidative damage, but that increased levels of biliverdin would limit this increase. We found that even just visual exposure to a potential combatant resulted in decreased body mass during the subsequent 48-hour period, but that hematocrit, biliverdin concentration in the bile, relative spleen size, and oxidative damage in plasma, liver, and spleen were unaffected. Contrary to our predictions, we found that individuals with smaller spleens exhibited greater decreases in hematocrit and higher bile biliverdin concentrations, suggesting a revision to the idea of spleen-dependent erythrocyte processing. Interestingly, individuals with larger spleens had reduced oxidative damage in both the liver and spleen, demonstrating the spleen’s importance in modulating oxidative damage. We also uncovered differences in spleen size and oxidative damage between wild and captive-bred chameleons, highlighting environmentally dependent differences in oxidative physiology. Lastly, we found no relationship between oxidative damage and biliverdin concentration, calling into question biliverdin’s antioxidant role in this species.

Fighting experience alters brain androgen receptor expression dependent on testosterone status

Contest decisions are influenced by the outcomes of recent fights (winner-loser effects). Steroid hormones and serotonin are closely associated with aggression and therefore probably also play important roles in mediating winner-loser effects. In mangrove rivulus fish, Kryptolebias marmoratus, individuals with higher testosterone (T), 11-ketotestosterone and cortisol levels are more capable of winning, but titres of these hormones do not directly mediate winner-loser effects. In this study, we investigated the effects of winning/losing experiences on brain expression levels of the receptor genes for androgen (AR), oestrogen α/β (ERα/β), glucocorticoid (GR) and serotonin (5-HT1AR). The effect of contest experience on AR gene expression depended on T levels: repeated losses decreased, whereas repeated wins increased AR gene expression in individuals with low T but not in individuals with medium or high T levels. These results lend strong support for AR being involved in mediating winner-loser effects, which, in previous studies, were more detectable in individuals with lower T. Furthermore, the expression levels of ERα/β, 5-HT1AR and GR genes were higher in individuals that initiated contests against larger opponents than in those that did not. Overall, contest experience, underlying endocrine state and hormone and serotonin receptor expression patterns interacted to modulate contest decisions jointly.

Novelty of the arena impairs the cortisol-related increase in the aggression of matrinxã (Brycon amazonicus)

The dichotomic effect of a cortisol level rise in vertebrate behavior has been widely observed. Generally, a chronic increase of the hormone level inhibits aggression, while an acute rise increases aggression. However, in this study, we show that this increase in aggression through an acute rise of cortisol also depends on the context in which the agonistic interaction occurs in the tropical fish matrinxã, Brycon amazonicus. We combined two factors: the type of housing (resident or non-resident in the trial arena) and the level of cortisol at the beginning of the fight (normal level - control, or high level - hydrocortisone-treated fish). The cortisol treatment increased the aggressiveness in the resident fish, but this effect was not observed in the non-resident fish, which fought in an unknown arena. The novelty of the arena may have elicited an "alerted state" in the non-resident fish; in this situation the fight was not the priority, and the cortisol effect in aggression could be impaired by a conflict between motivational systems (fear and aggression). In our knowledge, in fish, the increase of aggression promoted by an acute rise in cortisol levels was always tested and observed in a resident context, and the inhibition of cortisol effect in the agonist behavior is demonstrated for the first time. As the cortisol effect in aggression is observed in several taxa, the inhibition of aggressiveness increased by the novelty of the arena should be investigated in other groups to clarify the dynamics of this effect of cortisol in animal behavior.

Corticosterone stress response shows long-term repeatability and links to personality in free-living Nazca boobies

The concept of "coping styles", or consistently different responses to stressors, is of broad interest in behavioral ecology and biomedicine. Two critical predictions of this concept are individual consistency of neurophysiological and behavioral responses (relative to population variability) and a negative relationship between aggression/proactivity and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity. Recent studies failed to provide strong support for these predictions, especially outside of strictly controlled conditions, and long-term measures to test the first prediction are rare. Here, we demonstrate individual repeatability across 2-3years of maximum circulating corticosterone concentration [CORT] and area under the [CORT] response curve (AUCI) during a standard capture-restraint test in wild, free-living adult Nazca boobies (Sula granti). We also show that the stress response predicts the personality traits aggression and anxiety in these birds (measured in the wild); however, the strength of these results was weak. Maximum [CORT] and AUCI showed higher repeatability between years than baseline [CORT]. After controlling breeding status, sex, mass, date sampled, and their interactions, baseline [CORT] was most closely related to personality traits, followed by AUCI, and then maximum [CORT]. The direction of these relationships depended on whether the testing context was social or non-social. [CORT] parameters had little to no relationship with cross-context plasticity in personality traits. Our results generally affirm two critical predictions of coping styles, but match the emerging trend that these relationships are weak in the wild, and may depend on testing context.

Neuropeptide S and BDNF gene expression in the amygdala are influenced by social decision-making under stress

In a newly developed conceptual model of stressful social decision-making, the Stress-Alternatives Model (SAM; used for the 1st time in mice) elicits two types of response: escape or remain submissively. Daily (4d) aggressive social interaction in a neutral arena between a C57BL6/N test mouse and a larger, novel aggressive CD1 mouse, begin after an audible tone (conditioned stimulus; CS). Although escape holes (only large enough for smaller test animals) are available, and the aggressor is unremittingly antagonistic, only half of the mice tested utilize the possibility of escape. During training, for mice that choose to leave the arena and social interaction, latency to escape dramatically decreases over time; this is also true for control C57BL6/N mice which experienced no aggression. Therefore, the open field of the SAM apparatus is intrinsically anxiogenic. It also means that submission to the aggressor is chosen despite this anxiety and the high intensity of the aggressive attacks and defeat. While both groups that received aggression displayed stress responsiveness, corticosterone levels were significantly higher in animals that chose submissive coexistence. Although both escaping and non-escaping groups of animals experienced aggression and defeat, submissive animals also exhibited classic fear conditioning, freezing in response to the CS alone, while escaping animals did not. In the basolateral amygdala (BLA), gene expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was diminished, at the same time neuropeptide S (NPS) expression was significantly elevated, but only in submissive animals. This increase in submission-evoked NPS mRNA expression was greatest in the central amygdala (CeA), which coincided with decreased BDNF expression. Reduced expression of BDNF was only found in submissive animals that also exhibit elevated NPS expression, despite elevated corticosterone in all socially interacting animals. The results suggest an interwoven relationship, linked by social context, between amygdalar BDNF, NPS and plasma corticosterone.

Variation in steroid hormone levels among Caribbean Anolis lizards: endocrine system convergence?

Variation in aggression among species can be due to a number of proximate and ultimate factors, leading to patterns of divergent and convergent evolution of behavior among even closely related species. Caribbean Anolis lizards are well known for their convergence in microhabitat use and morphology, but they also display marked convergence in social behavior and patterns of aggression. We studied 18 Anolis species across six ecomorphs on four different Caribbean islands to test four main hypotheses. We hypothesized that species differences in aggression would be due to species differences in circulating testosterone (T), a steroid hormone implicated in numerous studies across vertebrate taxa as a primary determinant of social behavior; more aggressive species were expected to have higher baseline concentrations of T and corticosterone. We further hypothesized that low-T species would increase T and corticosterone levels during a social challenge. Within three of the four island assemblages studied we found differences in T levels among species within an island that differ in aggression, but in the opposite pattern than predicted: more aggressive species had lower baseline T than the least aggressive species. The fourth island, Puerto Rico, showed the pattern of baseline T levels among species we predicted. There were no patterns of corticosterone levels among species or ecomorphs. One of the two species tested increased T in response to a social challenge, but neither species elevated corticosterone. Our results suggest that it is possible for similarities in aggression among closely related species to evolve via different proximate mechanisms.

Embryonic exposure to corticosterone modifies aggressive behavior through alterations of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and the serotonergic system in the chicken

Exposure to excess glucocorticoids (GCs) during embryonic development influences offspring phenotypes and behaviors and induces epigenetic modifications of the genes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and in the serotonergic system in mammals. Whether prenatal corticosterone (CORT) exposure causes similar effects in avian species is less clear. In this study, we injected low (0.2μg) and high (1μg) doses of CORT into developing embryos on day 11 of incubation (E11) and tested the changes in aggressive behavior and hypothalamic gene expression on posthatch chickens of different ages. In ovo administration of high dose CORT significantly suppressed the growth rate from 3weeks of age and increased the frequency of aggressive behaviors, and the dosage was associated with elevated plasma CORT concentrations and significantly downregulated hypothalamic expression of arginine vasotocin (AVT) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). The hypothalamic content of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) protein was significantly decreased in the high dose group (p<0.05), whereas no changes were observed for GR mRNA. High dose CORT exposure significantly increased platelet serotonin (5-HT) uptake, decreased whole blood 5-HT concentration (p<0.05), downregulated hypothalamic tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1) mRNA and upregulated 5-HT receptor 1A (5-HTR1A) and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) mRNA, but not monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B). High dose CORT also significantly increased DNA methylation of the hypothalamic GR and CRH gene promoters (p<0.05). Our findings suggest that embryonic exposure to CORT programs aggressive behavior in the chicken through alterations of the HPA axis and the serotonergic system, which may involve modifications in DNA methylation.

The glucocorticoid/aggression relationship in animals and humans: an analysis sensitive to behavioral characteristics, glucocorticoid secretion patterns, and neural mechanisms

Glucocorticoids control a wide array of biological processes from glucose homeostasis to neuronal function. The mechanisms mediating their effects are similarly varied and include rapid and transient nongenomic effects on calcium trafficking, various neurotransmitter receptors, and other membrane/cytoplasmic proteins, as well as slowly developing but durable genomic effects that are mediated by a large number of glucocorticoid-sensitive genes that are affected after variable lag-times. Given this complexity, we suggest that the aggression/glucocorticoid relationship cannot be reduced to the simple "stimulation/inhibition" question. Here, we review the effects of glucocorticoids on aggression by taking into account the complexities of glucocorticoid actions. Acute and chronic effects were differentiated because these are mediated by different mechanisms. The effects of chronic increases and decreases in glucocorticoid production were discussed separately, because the activation of mechanisms that are not normally activated and the loss of normal functions should not be confounded. Findings in healthy/normal subjects and those obtained in subjects that show abnormal forms of behavior or psychopathologies were also differentiated, because the effects of glucocorticoids are indirect, and largely depend on the properties of neurons they act upon, which are altered in subjects with psychopathologies. In addition, the conditions of glucocorticoid measurements were also thoroughly evaluated. Although the role of glucocorticoids in aggression is perceived as controversial by many investigators, a detailed analysis that is sensitive to glucocorticoid and behavioral measure as well as to the mediating mechanism suggests that this role is rather clear-cut; moreover, there is a marked similarity between animal and human findings.

Intracellular glucocorticoid receptors in spleen, but not skin, vary seasonally in wild house sparrows (Passer domesticus)

Over the short-term and at physiological doses, acute increases in corticosterone (CORT) titres can enhance immune function. There are predictable seasonal patterns in both circulating CORT and immune function across many animal species, but whether CORT receptor density in immune tissues varies seasonally is currently unknown. Using radioligand binding assays, we examined changes in concentrations of glucocorticoid receptors (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) in spleen and skin in wild-caught house sparrows in Massachusetts during six different life-history stages: moult, early winter, late winter, pre-egg-laying, breeding and late breeding. Splenic GR and MR binding were highest during the pre-laying period. This may help animals respond to immune threats through increased lymphocyte proliferation and/or an increase in delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions, both of which CORT can stimulate and in which spleen is involved. A decrease in splenic GR and MR during the late breeding period coincides with low baseline and stress-induced CORT, suggesting immune function in spleen may be relatively CORT-independent during this period. We saw no seasonal patterns in GR or MR in skin, suggesting skin's response to CORT is modulated primarily via changes in circulating CORT titres and/or via local production of CORT in response to wounding and other noxious stimuli.

Winner and loser effects are modulated by hormonal states

Introduction

Many animals use information acquired from recent experiences to modify their responses to new situations. Animals’ decisions in contests also depend on their previous experience: after recent victories individuals tend to behave more aggressively and after defeats more submissively. Although these winner and/or loser effects have been reported for animals of different taxa, they have only recently been shown to be flexible traits, which can be influenced by extrinsic factors. In a mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus), for instance, individuals which lost an earlier contest were more likely than others to alter contest decisions after a recent win/loss. This result suggests that individuals perceiving themselves to have worse fighting abilities are more inclined to adjust contest strategy based on new information. If this is the case, an individual’s propensity to modify behaviour after a win/loss might also be modulated by intrinsic mechanisms related to its ability to fight. Stress and sex steroid hormones are often associated with an individual’s contest behaviour and performance, so, in this study, we tested the hypothesis that an individual’s propensity to change behaviour after wins or losses also depends on its hormonal state.

Results

Our results show that an individual’s propensity to adjust contest decisions after wins and losses does depend on its hormonal state: individuals with lower levels of cortisol (F), testosterone (T) and 11-ketotestosterone (KT) are more receptive than others to the influence of recent contest experiences, especially losing experiences, and the influences last longer. Furthermore, although winning and losing experiences resulted in significant changes in behaviour, they did not bring about a significant change in the levels of F, T, KT or oestradiol (E2).

Conclusions

This study shows that an individual’s receptivity to the influence of recent wins and losses is modulated by its internal state, as well as by extrinsic factors. Individuals with hormonal profiles corresponding to lower aggressiveness and a reduced likelihood of winning were more likely to alter contest decisions after a recent win/loss. The results also suggest that F, T, KT and E2 are not the primary physiological mechanisms mediating winner-loser effects in this fish.

Role of glucocorticoid in developmental programming: evidence from zebrafish

The vertebrate corticosteroid stress response is highly conserved and a key function is to restore homeostasis by mobilizing and reallocating energy stores. This process is primarily initiated by activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, leading to the release of corticosteroids into the circulation. In teleosts, cortisol is the primary corticosteroid that is released into the circulation in response to stress. This steroid activates corticosteroid receptors that are ligand-bound transcription factors, modulating downstream gene expression in target tissues. Recent research in zebrafish (Danio rerio) has identified novel roles for cortisol in early developmental processes, including organogenesis and mesoderm formation. As cortisol biosynthesis commences only around the time of hatch in teleosts, the early developmental events are orchestrated by cortisol that is maternally deposited prior to fertilization. This review will highlight the molecular events leading to the development of the corticosteroid stress axis, and the possible role of cortisol in the developmental programming of stress axis function. Use of zebrafish as a model may lead to significant insights into the conserved role of glucocorticoids during early development with potential implications in biomedical research, including fetal stress syndromes in humans.

The response of brain serotonergic and dopaminergic systems to an acute stressor in rainbow trout: a time-course study

The brain monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems are known to be involved in the integrated response to stress in vertebrates. However, the present knowledge about the timing of their actions as well as their specific roles in the regulation of the endocrine axes that drive the stress response is incomplete. This is partially because of the complexity of the reciprocal interactions among the monoaminergic systems and other biochemical actors of the stress response such as CRF, AVT, ACTH or corticosteroids. In this study, we show for the first time in teleost fish, the short- and mid-term time-course of the response of the forebrain serotonergic and dopaminergic activities after the exposure to an acute stressor in rainbow trout. Other stress markers like the plasma levels of cortisol, glucose and lactate were also monitored, providing a context to precisely locate the monoaminergic activation within the fish acute stress response. Our results show that the acute stress induced a rapid increase in the forebrain serotonergic activity, which became elevated after only 15 seconds of chasing. Several hours after stress, the serotonergic activity recovered its basal levels, in parallel to the recovery of other stress markers such as plasma catecholamines and cortisol. The dopaminergic activity was also increased after stress, but only in the telencephalon and only after 20 minutes post-stress. The increase in serotonergic activity happened before the elevation of plasma catecholamines, suggesting that this monoamine system could have a key role in triggering the initial steps of the activation of not only the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis, but also the brain-sympathetic-chromaffin axis in fish.

Aggression and related behavioral traits: the impact of winning and losing and the role of hormones

A suite of correlated behaviors reflecting between-individual consistency in behavior across multiple situations is termed a "behavioral syndrome." Researchers have suggested that a cause for the correlation between different behaviors might lie in the neuroendocrine system. In this study, we examined the relationships between aggressiveness (a fish's readiness to perform gill display to its mirror image) and each of boldness (the readiness to emerge from a shelter), exploratory tendency (the readiness to approach a novel shelter), and learning performance (the probability of entering the correct reservoir in a T-maze test) in a mangrove rivulus, Kryptolebias marmoratus. We explored the possibility that the relationships between them arise because these behaviors are all modulated by cortisol and testosterone. We also tested the stability of the relationships between these behaviors shortly after using a winning or losing experience to alter individuals' aggressiveness. The results were that aggressiveness correlated positively with boldness and the tendency to explore, and that these three behavioral traits were all positively correlated with pre-experience testosterone levels. Aggressiveness and boldness also positively correlated with pre-experience cortisol levels; exploratory tendency did not. The relationship between aggressiveness and boldness appeared to be stronger than that between either of them and exploratory tendency. These results suggest that testosterone and cortisol play important roles in mediating the correlations between these behavioral traits. Learning performance was not significantly correlated with the other behavioral traits or with levels of testosterone or cortisol. Recent experience in contests influenced individuals' aggressiveness, tendency to explore, and learning performance but not their boldness; individuals that received a winning experience were quicker to display to their mirror image and performed better in the learning task but were slower to approach a novel object than were individuals that lost. Contest experience did not, however, significantly influence the relationships between aggressiveness and any of boldness, exploratory tendency, or learning performance. The results show that the individual components of a suite of correlated behaviors can preserve a flexibility to respond differently to environmental stimuli.

Simulating winning in the wild--the behavioral and hormonal response of black redstarts to single and repeated territorial challenges of high and low intensity

In many vertebrates testosterone increases during aggressive interactions and the surges in this hormone may be responsible for the winner effect. So far studies on this relationship have been done in captivity only, because simulating a winning situation for a territory owner in the field is difficult. However, an increasing number of studies show that territorial aggression is not necessarily accompanied by elevated testosterone after a single simulated territorial intrusion (STI) and therefore it has been proposed that STIs may even create a losing experience. We examined whether free-living male black redstarts (Phoenicurus ochruros) show changes in androgens, corticosterone and behavior following repeated STIs of high or low intensity and in contrast to being challenged only once. Repeated intrusions had no influence on androgen and corticosterone levels regardless of intrusion intensity. In contrast, the behavioral response changed over days depending on the intensity of the intrusion. Only birds challenged with high-level intruders approached the decoy significantly faster during the third intrusion than during the first one, stayed closer to the decoy, and sang more songs than males challenged with low-level intruders. Thus, although black redstarts reacted differently to STIs varying in frequency and intensity, these behavioral differences were not reflected in androgen or corticosterone levels. Our data show that it is unlikely that STIs induce a losing experience. Furthermore, they indicate that a hormonal effect of winning an encounter may not be universal in vertebrates and may depend on the ecological or life-history context.

Aggressive interactions differentially modulate local and systemic levels of corticosterone and DHEA in a wild songbird

During the nonbreeding season, when gonadal androgen synthesis is basal, recent evidence suggests that neurosteroids regulate the aggression of male song sparrows. In particular, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is rapidly converted in the brain to androgens in response to aggressive interactions. In other species, aggressive encounters increase systemic glucocorticoid levels. However, the relationship between aggression and local steroid levels is not well understood. Here, during the breeding and nonbreeding seasons, we tested the effects of a simulated territorial intrusion (STI) on DHEA and corticosterone levels in the brachial and jugular plasma. Jugular plasma is enriched with neurosteroids and provides an indirect index of brain steroid levels. Further, during the nonbreeding season, we directly measured steroid levels in the brain and peripheral tissues. Both breeding and nonbreeding males displayed robust aggressive responses to STI. During the breeding season, STI increased brachial and jugular corticosterone levels and jugular DHEA levels. During the nonbreeding season, STI did not affect plasma corticosterone levels, but increased jugular DHEA levels. During the nonbreeding season, STI did not affect brain levels of corticosterone or DHEA. However, STI did increase corticosterone and DHEA concentrations in the liver and corticosterone concentrations in the pectoral muscle. These data suggest that 1) aggressive social interactions affect neurosteroid levels in both seasons and 2) local steroid synthesis in peripheral tissues may mobilize energy reserves to fuel aggression in the nonbreeding season. Local steroid synthesis in brain, liver or muscle may serve to avoid the costs of systemic increases in corticosterone and testosterone.

Glucocorticoid receptor blockade inhibits brain cell addition and aggressive signaling in electric fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus

When animals are under stress, glucocorticoids commonly inhibit adult neurogenesis by acting through glucocorticoid receptors (GRs). However, in some cases, conditions that elevate glucocorticoids promote adult neurogenesis, and the role of glucocorticoid receptors in these circumstances is not well understood. We examined the involvement of GRs in social enhancement of brain cell addition and aggressive signaling in electric fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus. In this species, long-term social interaction simultaneously elevates plasma cortisol, enhances brain cell addition and increases production of aggressive electrocommunication signals ("chirps"). We implanted isolated and paired fish with capsules containing nothing (controls) or the GR antagonist, RU486, recorded chirp production and locomotion for 7d, and measured the density of newborn cells in the periventricular zone. Compared to isolated controls, paired controls showed elevated chirping in two phases: much higher chirp rates in the first 5h and moderately higher nocturnal rates thereafter. Treating paired fish with RU486 reduced chirp rates in both phases to those of isolated fish, demonstrating that GR activation is crucial for socially induced chirping. Neither RU486 nor social interaction affected locomotion. RU486 treatment to paired fish had a partial effect on cell addition: paired RU486 fish had less cell addition than paired control fish but more than isolated fish. This suggests that cortisol activation of GRs contributes to social enhancement of cell addition but works in parallel with another GR-independent mechanism. RU486 also reduced cell addition in isolated fish, indicating that GRs participate in the regulation of cell addition even when cortisol levels are low.

Relationships among hormones, brain and motivated behaviors in lizards

Lizards provide a rich opportunity for investigating the mechanisms associated with arousal and the display of motivated behaviors. They exhibit diverse mating strategies and modes of conspecific communication. This review focuses on anole lizards, of which green anoles (Anolis carolinensis) have been most extensively studied. Research from other species is discussed in that context. By considering mechanisms collectively, we can begin to piece together neural and endocrine factors mediating the stimulation of sexual and aggressive behaviors in this group of vertebrates.

Away game or home match: the influence of venue and serotonin transporter genotype on the display of offensive aggression

Aggression can be modulated by both genetic and environmental factors. Here, we analyse how the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) genotype and the environmental situation in which a contest takes place shape the display of offensive aggression. Therefore, male wildtype, heterozygous, and homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice, which are known to differ in inborn levels of anxiety, were confronted three times with a docile opponent in one of three environmental situations: own territory, opponent's territory or neutral area. The main findings were: The frequency of approaching the contestant in order to gather information about him depended significantly on the venue but not on the genotype with lowest frequencies in the opponent's territory. The decision how quickly to attack the opponent was significantly influenced by the 5-HTT genotype but not by the venue: Homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice showed longest latencies. The sum of offensive aggression was significantly influenced by the 5-HTT genotype, the environmental situation, and a genotype by environment interaction. It is likely that, due to their varying genetic predisposition for anxiety, mice of the three genotypes were differentially affected by the aversiveness of the respective venue and the opponent's behaviour, which influenced their decision to display offensive aggression. As a consequence, the amount of aggression shown by homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice was influenced by the venue and the opponent's behaviour, whereas heterozygotes reacted only to the venue. Strikingly, wildtypes behaved always the same way, irrespective of venue and opponent.

Higher levels of aggression are observed in socially dominant toadfish treated with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine

The following study set out to test the hypothesis that acute treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine, would result in a rise in circulating 5-HT levels and consequently a decrease in territorial aggression in the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. Size-matched pairs of toadfish were implanted intraperitoneally with the same dose of fluoxetine (0, 10 or 25 μg g⁻¹). After a social interaction between a pair of fish, circulating levels of serotonin (5-HT; 5-hydroxytryptamine) and cortisol were measured and relative mRNA expression of the 5-HT(1A) receptor in the toadfish brain was determined using quantitative (real-time) PCR (qPCR). Behavioral endpoints such as the number of aggressive acts and swimming activity were also quantified so that dominant and subordinate fish could be identified. Fluoxetine treatment resulted in an increase in circulating levels of 5-HT, regardless of social status. Circulating cortisol concentrations were unaffected by fluoxetine, but were significantly higher in subordinate individuals when compared to dominant fish. Toadfish brain 5-HT(1A) receptor mRNA expression was not affected by treatment or social status. Lastly and contrary to our predictions, fluoxetine treatment resulted in an increase in the number of aggressive acts made by dominant individuals, with no differences in the level of aggression or swimming activity of subordinate fish. This study is the first to describe elevated aggression in a teleost fish with elevated circulating levels of 5-HT.