Autodisplay of catalytically active human hyaluronidase hPH-20 and testing of enzyme inhibitors

Biochemical Characterization and Mechanism of Thermostability of the Thermophilic Hyaluronate Lyase TcHly8D

Hyaluronate lyases are widely used in medicine and biochemical engineering and are also applied as a tool enzyme to prepare oligosaccharides with various biological activities. To date, only a few hyaluronate lyases are on sale with poor thermostability. In this study, a PL8 hyaluronate lyase, TcHly8D, was found from Thermasporomyces composti and expressed in Escherichia coli with a maximum yield of 1.77 × 109 U/L (3.14 g/L) in a 5-L bioreactor. The recombinant TcHly8D exhibited a high hyaluronate lyase activity of 5.64 × 105 U/mg and an excellent thermostability with half-lives of 184.9 h at 60 °C. Fifty micrograms of TcHly8D could catalyze 5 g of hyaluronic acid with an oligosaccharide yield of 84.8% in 4 h. The salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and proline residues, but not disulfide bonds, played important roles in the thermostability of TcHly8D. These findings provide insights into the multifunctional application potential of TcHly8D in agriculture, medicine, and the food industry.

Engineering protein translocation and unfolded protein response enhanced human PH-20 secretion in Pichia pastoris

Hyaluronidases catalyze the degradation of hyaluronan (HA), which is finding rising applications in medicine, cosmetic, and food industries. Recombinant expression of hyaluronidases in microbial hosts has been given special attention as a sustainable way to substitute animal tissue-derived hyaluronidases. In this study, we focused on optimizing the secretion of hyaluronidase from Homo sapiens in Pichia pastoris by secretion pathway engineering. The recombinant hyaluronidase was first expressed under the control of a constitutive promoter PGCW14. Then, two endoplasmic reticulum-related secretory pathways were engineered to improve the secretion capability of the recombinant strain. Signal peptide optimization suggested redirecting the protein into co-translational translocation using the ost1-proα signal sequence improved the secretion level by 20%. Enhancing the co-translational translocation by overexpressing signal recognition particle components further enhanced the secretory capability by 48%. Then, activating the unfolded protein response by overexpressing a transcriptional factor ScHac1p led to a secreted hyaluronidase activity of 4.06 U/mL, which was 2.1-fold higher than the original strain. Finally, fed-batch fermentation elevated the production to 19.82 U/mL. The combined engineering strategy described here could be applied to enhance the secretion capability of other proteins in yeast hosts. KEY POINTS: • Improving protein secretion by enhancing co-translational translocation in P. pastoris was reported for the first time. • Overexpressing Hac1p homologous from different origins improved the rhPH-20 secretion. • A 4.9-fold increase in rhPH-20 secretion was achieved after fermentation optimization and fed-batch fermentation.

Engineered Bacteria Enhance Immunotherapy and Targeted Therapy through Stromal Remodeling of Tumors

Desmoplastic solid tumors are characterized by the rapid build-up of extracellular matrix (ECM) macromolecules, such as hyaluronic acid (HA). The resulting physiological barrier prevents the infiltration of immune cells and also impedes the delivery of anticancer agents. The development of a hypervesiculating Escherichia coli Nissle (ΔECHy) based tumor targeting bacterial system capable of distributing a fusion peptide, cytolysin A (ClyA)-hyaluronidase (Hy) via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) is reported. The capability of targeting hypoxic tumors, manufacturing recombinant proteins in situ and the added advantage of an on-site OMV based distribution system makes the engineered bacterial vector a unique candidate for peptide delivery. The HA degrading potential of Hy for stromal modulation is combined with the cytolytic activity of ClyA followed by testing it within syngeneic cancer models. ΔECHy is combined with immune checkpoint antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) to demonstrate that remodeling the tumor stroma results in the improvement of immunotherapy outcomes and enhancing the efficacy of biological signaling inhibitors. The biocompatibility of ΔECHy is also investigated to show that the engineered bacteria are effectively cleared, elicit minimal inflammatory and immune responses, and therefore could be a reliable candidate as a live biotherapeutic.

A modified flavonoid accelerates oligodendrocyte maturation and functional remyelination

Myelination delay and remyelination failure following insults to the central nervous system (CNS) impede axonal conduction and lead to motor, sensory and cognitive impairments. Both myelination and remyelination are often inhibited or delayed due to the failure of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) to mature into myelinating oligodendrocytes (OLs). Digestion products of the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) have been implicated in blocking OPC maturation, but how these digestion products are generated is unclear. We tested the possibility that hyaluronidase activity is directly linked to the inhibition of OPC maturation by developing a novel modified flavonoid that functions as a hyaluronidase inhibitor. This compound, called S3, blocks some but not all hyaluronidases and only inhibits matrix metalloproteinase activity at high concentrations. We find that S3 reverses HA-mediated inhibition of OPC maturation in vitro, an effect that can be overcome by excess recombinant hyaluronidase. Furthermore, we find that hyaluronidase inhibition by S3 accelerates OPC maturation in an in vitro model of perinatal white matter injury. Finally, blocking hyaluronidase activity with S3 promotes functional remyelination in mice with lysolecithin-induced demyelinating corpus callosum lesions. All together, these findings support the notion that hyaluronidase activity originating from OPCs in CNS lesions is sufficient to prevent OPC maturation, which delays myelination or blocks remyelination. These data also indicate that modified flavonoids can act as selective inhibitors of hyaluronidase activity and can promote OPC maturation, making them excellent candidates to accelerate myelination or promote remyelination following perinatal and adult CNS insults.

Hyaluronidase-Expressing Salmonella Effectively Targets Tumor-Associated Hyaluronic Acid in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

In pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), the extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding cancer cells forms a barrier that often limits the ability of chemotherapeutic drugs and cytotoxic immune subsets to penetrate and eliminate tumors. The dense stromal matrix protecting cancer cells, also known as desmoplasia, results from the overproduction of major ECM components such as collagens and hyaluronic acid (HA). Although candidate drugs targeting ECM components have shown promise in increasing penetration of chemotherapeutic agents, severe adverse effects associated with systemic depletion of ECM in peripheral healthy tissues limits their use at higher, more effective doses. Currently, few strategies exist that preferentially degrade ECM in tumor tissue over healthy tissues. In light of this, we have developed an attenuated, tumor-targeting Salmonella typhimurium (ST) expressing functional bacterial hyaluronidase (bHs-ST), capable of degrading human HA deposited within PDAC tumors. Our data show that bHs-ST (i) targets and colonizes orthotopic human PDAC tumors following systemic administration and (ii) is efficiently induced in vivo to deplete tumor-derived HA, which in turn (iii) significantly increases diffusion of Salmonella typhimurium within desmoplastic tumors. BHs-ST represents a promising new tumor ECM-targeting strategy that may be instrumental in minimizing off-tumor toxicity while maximizing drug delivery into highly desmoplastic tumors.

Orientation and density control of proteins on solid matters by outer membrane coating: Analytical and diagnostic applications

Autodisplay is an expression system for the display of recombinant proteins on the outer membrane (OM) of gram negative bacteria and has been developed for translocation studies, whole cell biocatalysis, bioremediation, inhibitor screening, and enzyme refolding. Recently, affinity proteins such as IgG-binding Z-domains and biotin-binding streptavidin have been autodisplayed on the OM of Escherichia coli for analytical and biomedical applications. The secretion mechanism of the autodisplay system was used and orientation and density control of these affinity proteins were determined. Affinity protein-autodisplaying E. coli cells have been used to coat solid supports in immunoassays. For this purpose, the OM of autodisplayed E. coli cells was separated and isolated by the aid of detergents. The structure of the resulting OM liposomes as well as their physico-chemical parameters, were analyzed. OM liposomes were used subsequently for coating various solid matters including microplates and biosensor transducer surfaces and the formation of OM layers were monitored. OM layer formation on solid matters was shown to increase the sensitivity of immunoassays and biosensors. In this review, analytical and diagnostic applications are described in particular concerning orientation and density control of autodisplayed affinity proteins.

A simplified process design for P450 driven hydroxylation based on surface displayed enzymes

New production routes for fine and bulk chemicals are important to establish further sustainable processes in industry. Besides the identification of new biocatalysts and new production routes the optimization of existing processes in regard to an improved utilization of the catalysts are needed. In this paper we describe the successful expression of P450BM3 on the surface of E. coli cells with the Autodisplay system. The successful hydroxylation of palmitic acid by using surface-displayed P450BM3 was shown. Besides optimization of surface protein expression, several cofactor regeneration systems were compared and evaluated. Afterwards, the development of a suitable process for the biocatalytic hydroxylation of fatty acids based on the re-use of the catalysts after a simple centrifugation was investigated. It was shown that the catalyst can be used for several times without any loss in activity. By using surface-displayed P450s in combination with an enzymatic cofactor regeneration system a total turnover number of up to 54,700 could be reached, to the knowledge of the authors the highest value reported for a P450 monooxygenase to date. Further optimizations of the described reaction system can have an enormous impact on the process design for more sustainable bioprocesses. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1225-1233. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Autodisplay of Human Hyaluronidase Hyal-1 on Escherichia coli and Identification of Plant-Derived Enzyme Inhibitors

Hyaluronan (HA) is the main component of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Depending on its chain size, it is generally accepted to exert diverse effects. High molecular weight HA is anti-angiogenic, immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory, while lower fragments are angiogenic and inflammatory. Human hyaluronidase Hyal-1 (Hyal-1) is one of the main enzymes in the metabolism of HA. This makes Hyal-1 an interesting target. Not only for functional and mechanistic studies, but also for drug development. In this work, Hyal-1 was expressed on the surface of E. coli, by applying Autodisplay, to overcome formation of inactive “inclusion bodies”. With the cells displaying Hyal-1 an activity assay was performed using “stains-all” dye. Subsequently, the inhibitory effects of four saponins and 14 plant extracts on the activity of surface displayed Hyal-1 were evaluated. The determined IC₅₀ values were 177 µM for glycyrrhizic acid, 108 µM for gypsophila saponin 2, 371 µM for SA1657 and 296 µM for SA1641. Malvae sylvestris flos, Equiseti herba and Ononidis radix extracts showed IC₅₀ values between 1.4 and 1.7 mg/mL. In summary, Autodisplay enabled the expression of functional human target protein Hyal-1 in E. coli and facilitated an accelerated testing of potential inhibitors.

Honey shows potent inhibitory activity against the bovine testes hyaluronidase

The purpose of this study was to investigate the anti-hyaluronidase activities of honeys from different botanical origins honeys in order to determine their anti-inflammatory properties. The total phenolic contents, total flavonoids and total tannin levels of six types of honey, chestnut, oak, heather, pine, buckwheat and mixed blossom, were determined. Concentration-related inhibition values were tested turbidimetrically on bovine testis hyaluronidase (BTHase) as IC50 (mg/mL). All honeys exhibited various concentration-dependent degrees of inhibition against BTHase. Inhibition values varied significantly depending on honeys' levels of phenolic contents, flavonoid and tannin. The honeys with the highest anti-hyaluronidase activity were oak, chestnut and heather. In conclusion, polyphenol-rich honeys have high anti-hyaluronidase activity, and these honeys have high protective and complementary potential against hyaluronidase-induced anti-inflammatory failures.

Functional display of heterotetrameric human protein kinase CK2 on Escherichia coli: a novel tool for drug discovery

Background

Human protein kinase CK2 represents a novel therapeutic target for neoplastic diseases. Inhibitors are in need to explore the druggability and the therapeutic options of this enzyme. A bottleneck in the search for new inhibitors is the availability of the target for testing. Therefore an assay was developed to provide easy access to CK2 for discovery of novel inhibitors.

Results

Autodisplay was used to present human CK2 on the surface of Escherichia coli. Heterotetrameric CK2 consists of two subunits, α and β, which were displayed individually on the surface. Co-display of CK2α and CK2β on the cell surface led to the formation of functional holoenzyme, as demonstrated by NaCl dependency of enzymatic activity, which differs from that of the catalytic subunit CK2α without β. In addition interaction of CK2α and CK2β at the cell surface was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation assays. Surface displayed CK2 holoenzyme enabled an easy IC₅₀ value determination. The IC₅₀ values for the known CK2 inhibitors TBB and Silmitasertib were determined to be 50 and 3.3 nM, respectively.

Conclusion

Surface-displayed CK2α and CK2β assembled on the cell surface of E. coli to an active tetrameric holoenzyme. The whole-cell CK2 autodisplay assay as developed is suitable for inhibition studies. Furthermore, it can be used to determine quantitative CK2 inhibition data such as IC₅₀ values. In summary, this is the first report on the functional surface display of a heterotetrameric enzyme on E. coli.

Emerging roles for hyaluronidase in cancer metastasis and therapy

Hyaluronidases are a family of five human enzymes that have been differentially implicated in the progression of many solid tumor types, both clinically and in functional studies. Advances in the past 5 years have clarified many apparent contradictions: (1) by demonstrating that specific hyaluronidases have alternative substrates to hyaluronan (HA) or do not exhibit any enzymatic activity, (2) that high-molecular weight HA polymers elicit signaling effects that are opposite those of the hyaluronidase-digested HA oligomers, and (3) that it is actually the combined overexpression of HA synthesizing enzymes with hyaluronidases that confers tumorigenic potential. This review examines the literature supporting these conclusions and discusses novel mechanisms by which hyaluronidases impact invasive tumor cell processes. In addition, a detailed structural and functional comparison of the hyaluronidases is presented with insights into substrate selectivity and potential for therapeutic targeting. Finally, technological advances in targeting hyaluronidase for tumor imaging and cancer therapy are summarized.

Autodisplay of an archaeal γ-lactamase on the cell surface of Escherichia coli using Xcc_Est as an anchoring scaffold and its application for preparation of the enantiopure antiviral drug intermediate (-) vince lactam

At present, autotransporter protein mediated surface display has opened a new dimension in the development of whole-cell biocatalysts. Here, we report the identification of a novel autotransporter Xcc_Est from Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris 8004 by bioinformatic analysis and application of Xcc_Est as an anchoring motif for surface display of γ-lactamase (Gla) from thermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus P2 in Escherichia coli. The localization of γ-lactamase in the cell envelope was monitored by Western blot, activity assay and flow cytometry analysis. Either the full-length or truncated Xcc_Est could efficiently transport γ-lactamase to the cell surface. Compared with the free enzyme, the displayed γ-lactamase exhibited optimum temperature of 30 °C other than 90 °C, with a substantial decrease of 60 °C. Under the preparation system, the engineered E. coli with autodisplayed γ-lactamase converted 100 g racemic vince lactam to produce 49.2 g (-) vince lactam at 30 °C within 4 h. By using chiral HPLC, the ee value of the produced (-) vince lactam was determined to be 99.5 %. The whole-cell biocatalyst exhibited excellent stability under the operational conditions. Our results indicate that the E. coli with surface displayed γ-lactamase is an efficient and economical whole cell biocatalyst for preparing the antiviral drug intermediate (-) vince lactam at mild temperature, eliminating expensive energy cost performed at high temperature.

Autodisplay for the co-expression of lipase and foldase on the surface of E. coli: washing with designer bugs

BACKGROUND

Lipases including the lipase from Burkholderia cepacia are in a main focus in biotechnology research since many years because of their manifold possibilities for application in industrial processes. The application of Burkholderia cepacia lipase for these processes appears complicated because of the need for support by a chaperone, the lipase specific foldase. Purification and reconstitution protocols therefore interfere with an economic implementation of such enzymes in industry. Autodisplay is a convenient method to express a variety of passenger proteins on the surface of E. coli. This method makes subsequent purification steps to obtain the protein of interest unnecessary. If enzymes are used as passengers, the corresponding cells can simply be applied as whole cell biocatalysts. Furthermore, enzymes surface displayed in this manner often acquire stabilization by anchoring within the outer membrane of E. coli.

RESULTS

The lipase and its chaperone foldase from B. cepacia were co-expressed on the surface of E. coli via autodisplay. The whole cell biocatalyst obtained thereby exhibited an enzymatic activity of 2.73 mU mL⁻¹ towards the substrate p-nitrophenyl palmitate when applied in an OD₅₇₈ =1. Outer membrane fractions prepared from the same culture volume showed a lipase activity of 4.01 mU mL⁻¹. The lipase-whole cell biocatalyst as well as outer membrane preparations thereof were used in a standardized laundry test, usually adopted to determine the power of washing agents. In this test, the lipase whole cell biocatalyst and the membrane preparation derived thereof exhibited the same lipolytic activity as the purified lipase from B. cepacia and a lipase preparation which is already applied in commercial washing agents.

CONCLUSIONS

Co-expression of both the lipase and its chaperone foldase on the surface of E. coli yields a lipid degrading whole cell biocatalyst. Therefore the chaperone supported folding process, absolutely required for the lipolytic activity appears not to be hindered by surface display. Furthermore, the cells and the membrane preparations appeared to be stable enough to endure a European standard laundry test and show efficient fat removal properties herein.

Autotransporter-based cell surface display in Gram-negative bacteria

Cell surface display of proteins can be used for several biotechnological applications such as the screening of protein libraries, whole cell biocatalysis and live vaccine development. Amongst all secretion systems and surface appendages of Gram-negative bacteria, the autotransporter secretion pathway holds great potential for surface display because of its modular structure and apparent simplicity. Autotransporters are polypeptides made up of an N-terminal signal peptide, a secreted or surface-displayed passenger domain and a membrane-anchored C-terminal translocation unit. Genetic replacement of the passenger domain allows for the surface display of heterologous passengers. An autotransporter-based surface expression module essentially consists of an application-dependent promoter system, a signal peptide, a passenger domain of interest and the autotransporter translocation unit. The passenger domain needs to be compatible with surface translocation although till now no general rules have been determined to test this compatibility. The autotransporter technology for surface display of heterologous passenger domains is critically discussed for various applications.

Cell surface display of a β-glucosidase employing the type V secretion system on ethanologenic Escherichia coli for the fermentation of cellobiose to ethanol

We used the autodisplay system AIDA-I, which belongs to the type V secretion system (TVSS), to display the β-glucosidase BglC from Thermobifida fusca on the outer membrane of the ethanologenic Escherichia coli strain MS04 (MG1655 ∆pflB, ∆adhE, ∆frdA, ∆xylFGH, ∆ldhA, PpflB::pdc (Zm)-adhB (Zm)). MS04 that was transformed with the plasmid pAIDABglCRHis showed cellobiase activity (171 U/g(CDW)) and fermented 40 g/l cellobiose in mineral medium in 60 h with an ethanol yield of 81 % of the theoretical maximum. Whole-cell protease treatment, SDS-PAGE, and Western-blot analysis demonstrated that BglC was attached to the external surface of the outer membrane of MS04. When attached to the cells, BglC showed 93.3 % relative activity in the presence of 40 g/l ethanol and retained 100 % of its activity following 2 days of incubation at 37 °C with the same ethanol concentration. This study shows the potential of the TVSS (AIDA-I) and BglC as tools for the production of lignocellulosic bio-commodities.

Autodisplay of functional CYP106A2 in Escherichia coli

Cytochrome P450 enzymes catalyse a wide variety of reactions, including the hydroxylation and epoxidation of CC bonds, and dealkylation reactions. There is high interest in these reactions for biotechnology and pharmaceutical processes. Many P450s require membrane surroundings and have substrates that do not cross biological membranes. To circumvent these obstacles, CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium was expressed on the outer membrane of Escherichia coli cells by Autodisplay. Exposure on the surface was confirmed by a protease accessibility test and flow cytometry after immunolabelling. HPLC assays showed that 0.5 ml of cells displaying the enzyme (OD₅₇₈ = 6) converted 9.13 μmol of deoxycorticosterone to 15β-OH-deoxycorticosterone within 1h. Imipramine and abietic acid were also accepted as substrates. The number of active enzyme molecules per cell was calculated to be 20,000. Surprisingly, surface-exposed CYP106A2 was active in E. coli BL21 without the external addition of the heme group. However, when CYP106A2 was expressed on the surface of an E. coli strain lacking the TolC channel protein (JW5503), enzymatic activity was almost completely abolished. The activity of CYP106A2 on the surface of E. coli JW5503 could be restored by the external addition of the heme group. This suggests, as has been reported before, that E. coli uses a TolC-dependent mechanism to export heme into the growth media, where it can be scavenged by a surface-displayed apoenzyme. Our results indicate that Autodisplay enables the functional surface display of P450 enzymes and provides a new platform to access their synthetic potential.