Influence of operator experience in radiofrequency ablation of malignant liver tumours on treatment outcome

A survey of liver ablation amongst UK interventional radiologists

AIM

To characterise training for, and conduct of, image-guided liver tumour ablation amongst UK interventional radiologists.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A web-based survey of British Society of Interventional Radiology members was carried out between 31 August to 1 October 2022. Twenty-eight questions were designed, covering four domains: (1) respondent background, (2) training, (3) current practice, and (4) operator technique.

RESULTS

One hundred and six responses were received, with an 87% completion rate and an approximate response rate of 13% of society members. All UK regions were represented, with the majority from London (22/105, 21%). Seventy-two out of 98 (73%) were either extremely or very interested in learning about liver ablation during training, although levels of exposure varied widely, and 37/103 (36%) had no exposure. Performed numbers of cases also varied widely, between 1-10 cases and >100 cases per operator annually. All (53/53) used microwave energy, and most routinely used general anaesthesia (47/53, 89%). Most 33/53 (62%) did not have stereotactic navigation system, and 25/51(49%) always, 18/51 (35%) never, and 8/51(16%) sometimes gave contrast medium (mean 40, SD 32%) after procedures. Fusion software to judge ablation completeness was never used by 86% (43/55), sometimes used by 9% (5/55), and always used by 13% (7/55) of respondents.

CONCLUSION

Although there are high levels of interest in image-guided liver ablation amongst UK interventional radiologists, training arrangements, operator experience, and procedural technique vary widely. As image-guided liver ablation evolves, there is a growing need to standardise training and techniques, and develop the evidence base to ensure high-quality oncological outcomes.

Reliability of Stereotactic Radiofrequency Ablation (SRFA) for Malignant Liver Tumors: Novice versus Experienced Operators

PURPOSE

To compare the results of a novice with those of experienced interventional radiologists (IRs) for stereotactic radiofrequency ablation (SRFA) of malignant liver tumors in terms of safety, technical success, and local tumor control.

METHODS

A database, including all SRFA procedures performed in a single center between January 2011 and December 2018 was retrospectively analyzed. A total of 39 ablation sessions performed by a novice IR were compared to the results of three more experienced IRs. Comparative SRFA sessions were selected using propensity score matching considering tumor type, age, sex, tumor size, and tumor number as matching variables. Overall, 549 target tumors were treated in 273 sessions. Median tumor size was 2.2 cm (1.0-8.5 cm) for 178 hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) and 3.0 cm (0.5-13.0 cm) for 371 metastases. A median of 2 (1-11) tumors were treated per session.

RESULTS

No significant differences were observed when comparing the results of more experienced IRs with those of a novice IR regarding the rates of major complications (6.8% [16/234] vs. 5.1% [2/39]; p = 0.477), mortality (1.3% [2/234] vs. 0% [0/39]; p = 0.690), primary technical efficacy (98.5% [525/533] vs. 98.9% [94/95]; p = 0.735), and local recurrence (5.6% [30/533] vs. 5.3% [5/95]; p = 0.886). However, the median planning/placement time was significantly shorter for the experienced IRs (92 min vs. 119 min; p = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

SRFA is a safe, effective, and reliable treatment option for malignant liver tumors and favorable outcomes can be achieved even by inexperienced operators with minimal supervision.

Learning curve of microwave ablation for liver cancers

PURPOSE

To evaluate MWA efficacy and safety by cumulative MWA volume and interventional experience.

METHOD

3113 primary liver cancers treated by 7 operators between 2006 and 2018 were studied. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate within-operators effects of increasing cumulative MWA volume per year on major complication, technical efficacy (TE) and local tumor progression (LTP) rates were adjusted for treatment-level characteristics. Changes were also evaluated by subgroups of tumor size and location.

RESULTS

Lower severe complication rate was detected only in higher MWA volume (HR: 0.31, P = 0.02)). TE rates increased with the increase of MWA volume ((100-150 procedures (HR: 0.33, P = 0.00); 150-200 procedures (HR: 0.08, P = 0.00)) per year. Similar results were found in subgroup analysis of interventional experience (5 to < 10 years (HR: 0.10, P = 0.00). MWA volume per year larger than 150 cases could reduce the major complication rate for tumors smaller than 5 cm (HR: 0.21, P = 0.03) and tumors in higher risk location (HR: 0.18, P = 0.03). The increase of MWA volume per year could significantly increase the TE rate in all tumor size, expect for tumors in high-risk location (100-150 procedures (HR:1.12, P = 0.84), 150-200 procedures (HR: 0.14, P = 0.08)).

CONCLUSIONS

Early and intensive performance of MWA procedures would reduce major complication rates regardless of tumor size and tumor location, but could not improve TE rate in high-risk locations.

Radiofrequency ablation in treatment of hepatic metastases of colorectal cancer

Radiofrequency ablation in treatment of hepatic metastases of colorectal cancer

Microwave ablation for colorectal cancer metastasis to the liver: a single-center retrospective analysis

Background

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and intermediate-term efficacy of percutaneous microwave (MW) ablation for the treatment of colorectal liver metastases (CRLM) at a single institution.

Methods

A retrospective review was performed of all CRLM treated with MW ablation from 3/2011 to 7/2020 (102 tumors; 72 procedures; 57 patients). Mean age was 60 years (range, 36-88) and mean tumor size was 1.8 cm (range, 0.5-5.0 cm). The patient population included 19 patients with extra-hepatic disease. Chemotherapy (pre- and/or post-ablation) was given in 98% of patients. Forty-five sessions were preceded by other focal CRLM treatments including resection, ablation, radiation, and radioembolization. Kaplan-Meier curves were used to estimate local tumor progression-free survival (LTPFS), disease-free survival (DFS), and overall survival (OS) and multivariate analysis (Cox Proportional Hazards model) was used to test predictors of OS.

Results

Technical success (complete ablation) was 100% and median follow-up was 42 months (range, 1-112). There was a 4% major complication rate and an overall complication rate of 8%. Local tumor progression (LTP) rate during the entire study period was 4/98 (4%), in which 2 were retreated with MW ablation for a secondary LTP-rate of 2%. LTP-free survival at 1, 3, and 5 years was 93%, 58%, and 39% and median LTP-free survival was 48 months. OS at 1, 3, and 5 years was 96%, 66%, 47% and median OS was 52 months. There were no statistically significant predictors of OS.

Conclusions

MW ablation of hepatic colorectal liver metastases appears safe with excellent local tumor control and prolonged survival compared to historical controls in selected patients. Further comparative studies with other local treatment strategies appear indicated.

The learning curve of laparoscopic ablation of liver tumors: A technically demanding procedure requiring dedicated training

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic ablation (LA) of liver tumors is an increasingly performed procedure. However, LA is technically demanding, with inherent difficulties making LA more complex than percutaneous and open surgery ablations. This study aimed to characterize the learning curve (LC) of LAs.

METHODS

All consecutive LAs of malignant liver tumors performed with curative intent by a single surgeon were identified from a prospective database. A risk-adjusted cumulative summative (RA-CUSUM) analysis was used for evaluating the LC of LAs. Incomplete ablation (IA) was the outcomes measure. Performance trends were analyzed using broken-line modeling.

RESULTS

From June 2007 to February 2018, 241 lesions underwent LA during 151 procedures. RA-CUSUM analysis demonstrated an LC of 93 LAs (p < 0.001), with an IA rate decreasing from 12.9% to 4.7% (p = 0.027). Lesions in the posterosuperior segment and those in cirrhotic livers showed an LC of 34 and 45 tumor ablations, respectively (p=<0.001 each). Open ablations performed during the same period showed steady outcomes, indicating already acquired proficiency.

CONCLUSION

Completion of a steep LC is needed to gain proficiency in LAs. Dedicated training should be warranted to novices to smooth the LC and decrease LA failures.

Software-based planning of ultrasound and CT-guided percutaneous radiofrequency ablation in hepatic tumors

Objectives

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) can be associated with local recurrences in the treatment of liver tumors. Data obtained at our center for an earlier multinational multicenter trial regarding an in-house developed simulation software were re-evaluated in order to analyze whether the software was able to predict local recurrences.

Methods

Twenty-seven RFA ablations for either primary or secondary hepatic tumors were included. Colorectal liver metastases were shown in 14 patients and hepatocellular carcinoma in 13 patients. Overlap of the simulated volume and the tumor volume was automatically generated and defined as positive predictive value (PPV) and additionally visually assessed. Local recurrence during follow-up was defined as gold standard. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated using the visual assessment and gold standard.

Results

Mean tumor size was 18 mm (95% CI 15–21 mm). Local recurrence occurred in 5 patients. The PPV of the simulation showed a mean of 0.89 (0.84–0.93 95% CI). After visual assessment, 9 incomplete ablations were observed, of which 4 true positives and 5 false positives for the detection of an incomplete ablation. The sensitivity and specificity were, respectively, 80% and 77% with a correct prediction in 78% of cases. No significant correlation was found between size of the tumor and PPV (Pearson Correlation 0.10; p = 0.62) or between PPV and recurrence rates (Pearson Correlation 0.28; p = 0.16).

Conclusions

The simulation software shows promise in estimating the completeness of liver RFA treatment and predicting local recurrence rates, but could not be performed real-time. Future improvements in the field of registration could improve results and provide a possibility for real-time implementation.

Colorectal liver metastases: Current management and future perspectives

The liver is the commonest site of metastatic disease for patients with colorectal cancer, with at least 25% developing colorectal liver metastases (CRLM) during the course of their illness. The management of CRLM has evolved into a complex field requiring input from experienced members of a multi-disciplinary team involving radiology (cross sectional, nuclear medicine and interventional), Oncology, Liver surgery, Colorectal surgery, and Histopathology. Patient management is based on assessment of sophisticated clinical, radiological and biomarker information. Despite incomplete evidence in this very heterogeneous patient group, maximising resection of CRLM using all available techniques remains a key objective and provides the best chance of long-term survival and cure. To this end, liver resection is maximised by the use of downsizing chemotherapy, optimisation of liver remnant by portal vein embolization, associating liver partition and portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy, and combining resection with ablation, in the context of improvements in the functional assessment of the future remnant liver. Liver resection may safely be carried out laparoscopically or open, and synchronously with, or before, colorectal surgery in selected patients. For unresectable patients, treatment options including systemic chemotherapy, targeted biological agents, intra-arterial infusion or bead delivered chemotherapy, tumour ablation, stereotactic radiotherapy, and selective internal radiotherapy contribute to improve survival and may convert initially unresectable patients to operability. Currently evolving areas include biomarker characterisation of tumours, the development of novel systemic agents targeting specific oncogenic pathways, and the potential re-emergence of radical surgical options such as liver transplantation.

The Learning Curve for Thermal Ablation of Liver Cancers: 4,363-Session Experience for a Single Central in 18 Years

This study aimed to explore the special efforts required to achieve proficiency in performing thermal ablation of liver cancers, including tumors in difficult locations, and clarify the effects of handing-down teaching on the corresponding process. Major complications of patients receiving percutaneous thermal ablation of liver cancer were analyzed. Polynomial fitting was used to describe the connection between major complication rates and special experience. Learning curve of major complications was plotted both for the whole group and for each operator, respectively. Tumors in difficult locations were further studied. A total of 4,363 thermal ablation sessions were included in this study. 143 of 4,363 patients had major complications, corresponding to an incidence rate of 3.27%. 806 thermal ablation sessions were performed for tumors in difficult locations. The major complication rate of these sessions is 6.33%. According to the trend of the learning curve of the 4363 patients, the experience of the whole group can be classified into five stages, that is, the high-risk, relatively stable, unstable, proficient and stable periods. A learning curve for an individual operator can be classified into the high-risk, proficient and stable periods. The major complication rates for the chronologically first, second and third operator of the group are 3.23, 3.35, and 3.31%, respectively. The special experience needed to bypass the first stage corresponds to 410, 510, and 440 sessions, the second stage, 1850, 850, and 870 sessions, by the three operators, respectively. The major complication rates for the tumors in difficult locations for the first, second and third operator were 7.04, 5.53, and 5.98%, respectively. For the tumors in difficult locations, the special experience needed to bypass the first stage corresponds to 150, 130, and 140 sessions, the second stage, 290, 175, and 185 sessions, by the three operators, respectively. In conclusion, the learning process of an operator percutaneous thermal ablation for liver cancer can be classified into three stages. The major complication rate for tumors in difficult locations were higher than that for all tumors. Handing-down teaching can make an operator arrive at the third stage earlier but not the second stage.

Role of thermal ablation in the management of colorectal liver metastasis

With a recent randomized prospective trial revealing that thermal ablative therapy as local tumor control improved overall survival (OS) in patients with unresectable colorectal cancer liver metastases (CRLM), thermal ablation continues to remain as an important treatment option in this patient population. Our aim of this article is to review the current role of the ablative therapy in the management of CRLM patients. Main indications for thermal ablation include (I) unresectable liver lesions; (II) in combination with hepatectomy; (III) in patients with significant medical comorbidities or poor performance status (PS); (IV) a small (<3 cm) solitary lesion, which would otherwise necessitate a major liver resection; and (V) patient preference. There are several approaches and modalities for ablative therapy, including open, percutaneous, and laparoscopic approaches, as well as radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and microwave ablation (MWA). Each approach and ablation modality have its own pros and cons. Percutaneous and laparoscopic approaches are preferred due to minimally invasive nature, yet laparoscopic approach has more benefits from thorough intraoperative ultrasound (US) exam as well as complete peritoneal staging with laparoscopy. Similarly, whereas high local tumor failure rate has been a major concern with RFA, MWA or microwave thermosphere ablation (MTA) have demonstrated significantly improved local tumor control due to homogenous tissue heating, ability to reach higher tissue temperatures, and less susceptible to the "heat-sink" effect. Although liver resection is the standard of care for CRLM, there have been some retrospective studies demonstrating similar oncological outcome between ablative therapy and surgical resection in very selected populations with small (<3 cm) solitary CRLM. Lastly, ablative therapy and liver resection should not be mutually exclusive, especially in the management of bilobar liver metastases. Concomitant ablative therapy with hepatectomy may spare the patients from having two-stage hepatectomy with less morbidity. The role of the thermal ablation will continue to evolve in patients with resectable and ablatable lesions owing to newly emerging technology, in addition to new systemic treatment options, including immunotherapy for metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC).

Individualized Ablation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Tailored Approaches across the Phenotype Spectrum

Ablation is now recommended by international guidelines for the definitive treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Extensive clinical studies have demonstrated outcomes comparable to surgical resection with shorter hospital stays, decreased costs, and improved quality of life. Successful ablation requires complete treatment of both tumor and margin while preserving critical adjacent structures. HCC exhibits highly variable presentations in both anatomic involvement and biology which have significant implications on choice of ablative therapy. There are now abundant ablation modalities and adjunctive techniques which can be used to individualize ablation and maximize curative results. This article provides a patient-centered summary of approaches to HCC ablation in the context of patient performance, hepatic reserve, tumor phenotype and biology, intra- and extrahepatic anatomy, and ablation technology.

Ablation or Resection for Colorectal Liver Metastases? A Systematic Review of the Literature

Background: Successful use of ablation for small hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) has led to interest in the role of ablation for colorectal liver metastases (CRLM). However, there remains a lack of clarity about the use of ablation for colorectal liver metastases (CRLM), specifically its efficacy compared with hepatic resection. Methods: A systematic review of the literature on ablation or resection of colorectal liver metastases was performed using MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, and Embase until December 2018. The aim of this study was to summarize the evidence for ablation vs. resection in the treatment of CRLM. Results: This review identified 1,773 studies of which 18 were eligible for inclusion. In the majority of the studies, overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were significantly higher and local recurrence (LR) rates were significantly lower in the resection groups. On subgroup analysis of solitary CRLM, resection was associated with improved OS, DFS, and reduced LR. Three series assessed the outcome of resection vs. ablation for technically resectable CRLM, and showed improved outcome in the resection group. In fact, there were no studies showing a survival advantage of ablation compared to resection in the treatment of CRLM. Conclusions: Resection remains the "gold standard" in the treatment of CRLM and should not be replaced by ablation at present. This review supports the use of ablation only as an adjunct to resection and as a single treatment option when resection is not safely possible.

Impact of an ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation training program on the outcomes in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to retrospectively evaluate the impact of a training program on the safety and efficacy of percutaneous ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 227 patients with 296 HCC nodules who underwent percutaneous RFA with or without transcatheter arterial chemoembolization at our institution were included. There were 163 men and 64 women with a mean age of 74.2±8.3 (SD) years (range: 41-89 years). Percutaneous ultrasound-guided RFA was performed by three trainees (205 HCC nodules in 157 patients) or a mentor (91 HCC nodules in 70 patients) after preprocedural preparation including planning ultrasonography. We compared background-related, tumor-related, and treatment-related factors, and local recurrence and complication rates between the trainee group and the mentor group. Similarly, we compared these variables among the years 2015, 2016, and 2017 for trainee group.

RESULTS

The proportion of easy-to-treat tumors in the trainee group (109/205; 53.2%) was greater than that in the mentor group (33/91; 36.3%) (P=0.020). No significant differences were observed in procedure difficulty among the years 2015, 2016, and 2017 for trainee group (easy-to-treat HCC nodules: 25/47; 53.2% vs. 39/79; 49.4% vs. 45/79; 57.0%. P=0.775). The local recurrence rate in the trainee group was 8.8% (18/205 HCC nodules) which was equivalent to 7.7% in the mentor group (7/91 HCC nodules). No significant differences were observed in local recurrence rate (8.8% vs. 7.7%, respectively; P=0.621) and major complication rate (1.3% vs. 1.4%, respectively; P=0.999) between the trainee group and the mentor group. No significant differences were observed in local recurrence rates ([5/47; 10.6%] vs. [11/79; 13.9%] vs. [2/79; 2.5%]) (P=0.109) and major complication rates ([1/36; 2.8%] vs. [1/62; 1.6%] vs. [0/59; 0%]) (P=0.701) between the years 2015, 2016, and 2017 for trainee group.

CONCLUSION

A well supervised training program that includes planning ultrasonography fosters the efficacy and treatment quality of RFA for HCC.

Demographic and facility volume related outcomes in radiofrequency ablation for early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

To evaluate outcomes related to disparities in facility volume and patient demographics in patients with early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treated with radiofrequency ablation (RFA).

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of patients with stage I/II HCC treated with RFA in the National Cancer Database. Independent contributors to overall survival were determined with Cox regression analysis. The Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank analyses were used to estimate overall survival and compare survival curves. A propensity score matched cohort analysis was performed. P-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

In total, 2911 patients were included. Stage II disease (p-value = 0.006), increasing alpha fetoprotein (p-value = 0.007), and increasing bilirubin (p-value < 0.001) were associated with worse survival. Improved survival was seen in patients treated at high-volume centers (p-value = 0.004), which persisted following propensity score adjustment (p-value = 0.003). Asian race was associated with significantly improved survival (p-value < 0.001), while governmental insurance was associated with a significant decrease in survival (p-value < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Treatment at a high-volume center and Asian race were significantly associated with improved survival following RFA for early-stage HCC. Governmental insurance, increasing alpha fetoprotein, increasing bilirubin, and higher disease stage were significantly associated with worse survival.

Tumor Ablation Using 3-Dimensional Electromagnetic-Guided Ultrasound Versus Standard Ultrasound in a Porcine Model

Introduction. The objective of this study was to compare the placement of ablation needles using 3-dimensional electromagnetic-guided ultrasound (guided) to standard ultrasound guidance (standard) in both laparoscopic surgery and open surgery. Endpoints for this study included targeting accuracy and number of required needle withdrawals and reorientations. Methods. Using a porcine model, fiducial markers were placed into the kidney and liver to represent tumors. Navigation and identification of target sites was achieved using standard or guided ultrasound. Intraprocedural observations as well as the number of needle placement attempts per target were recorded. Three board-certified general surgeons performed the navigation and ablation procedures. After completion of the navigation and ablation procedures, necropsy was performed. The position of the ablation zones relative to the fiducial markers was recorded. Results. A total of 48 procedures were performed across 6 animals (50% open and 50% laparoscopic). Overall, the guided ablations required 50% fewer attempts to successfully target the marker ( P = .01). There was a 62% reduction of attempts for guided laparoscopic ablation ( P = .006). On subgroup analysis of laparoscopic ablation, the benefit remained for liver ( P = .041) ablations, but not for renal ablations ( P = .093). There was no significant difference between the groups with regard to targeting accuracy (91.3% guided vs 95.4% standard, P = .58). Conclusions. The number of targeting attempts required during laparoscopic ablation procedures was significantly less with guided than with standard ultrasound, particularly for laparoscopic ablation of liver lesions. These findings suggest that the guided ultrasound can potentially reduce complications during laparoscopic ablation procedures.

RFA Guardian: Comprehensive Simulation of Radiofrequency Ablation Treatment of Liver Tumors

The RFA Guardian is a comprehensive application for high-performance patient-specific simulation of radiofrequency ablation of liver tumors. We address a wide range of usage scenarios. These include pre-interventional planning, sampling of the parameter space for uncertainty estimation, treatment evaluation and, in the worst case, failure analysis. The RFA Guardian is the first of its kind that exhibits sufficient performance for simulating treatment outcomes during the intervention. We achieve this by combining a large number of high-performance image processing, biomechanical simulation and visualization techniques into a generalized technical workflow. Further, we wrap the feature set into a single, integrated application, which exploits all available resources of standard consumer hardware, including massively parallel computing on graphics processing units. This allows us to predict or reproduce treatment outcomes on a single personal computer with high computational performance and high accuracy. The resulting low demand for infrastructure enables easy and cost-efficient integration into the clinical routine. We present a number of evaluation cases from the clinical practice where users performed the whole technical workflow from patient-specific modeling to final validation and highlight the opportunities arising from our fast, accurate prediction techniques.

Local recurrence after microwave thermosphere ablation of malignant liver tumors: results of a surgical series

BACKGROUND

Microwave thermosphere ablation is a new treatment modality that creates spherical ablation zones using a single antenna. This study aims to analyze local recurrence associated with this new treatment modality in patients with malignant liver tumors.

METHODS

This is a prospective clinical study of patients who underwent microwave thermosphere ablation of malignant liver tumors between September 2014 and March 2017. Clinical, operative, and oncologic parameters were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival and Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

One hundred patients underwent 301 ablations. Ablations were performed laparoscopically in 87 and open in 13 patients. Pathology included neuroendocrine liver metastasis (n = 115), colorectal liver metastasis (n = 100), hepatocellular cancer (n = 21), and other tumor types (n = 65). Ninety-day morbidity was 7% with one not procedure-related mortality. Median follow-up was 16 months with 65% of patients completing at least 12 months of follow-up. The rate of local tumor recurrence rate per lesion was 6.6% (20/301). Local tumor, new hepatic, and extrahepatic recurrences were detected in 15%, 40%, and 40% of patients, respectively. Local recurrence rate per pathology was 12% for both colorectal liver metastasis (12/100) and other metastatic tumors (8/65). No local recurrence was observed to date in the neuroendocrine liver metastasis and in the limited number of patients with hepatocellular cancers. Tumor size >3 cm and tumor type were independent predictors of local recurrence.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to analyze local recurrence after microwave thermosphere ablation of malignant liver tumors. Short-term local tumor control rate compares favorably with that reported for radiofrequency and other microwave technologies in the literature.

A novel 3-dimensional electromagnetic guidance system increases intraoperative microwave antenna placement accuracy

BACKGROUND

Failure to locate lesions and accurately place microwave antennas can lead to incomplete tumor ablation. The Emprint™ SX Ablation Platform employs real-time 3D-electromagnetic spatial antenna tracking to generate intraoperative laparoscopic antenna guidance. We sought to determine whether Emprint™ SX affected time/accuracy of antenna-placement in a laparoscopic training model.

METHODS

Targets (7-10 mm) were set in agar within a laparoscopic training device. Novices (no surgical experience), intermediates (surgical residents), and experts (HPB-surgeons) were asked to locate and hit targets using a MWA antenna (10-ultrasound only, 10-Emprint™ SX). Time to locate target, number of attempts to hit the target, first-time hit rate, and time from initiating antenna advance to hitting the target were measured.

RESULTS

Participants located 100% of targets using ultrasound, with experts taking significantly less time than novices and intermediates. Using ultrasound only, successful hit-rates were 70% for novices and 90% for intermediates and experts. Using Emprint™ SX, successful hit rates for all 3-groups were 100%, with significantly increased first-time hit-rates and reduced time required to hit targets compared to ultrasound only.

DISCUSSION

Emprint™ SX significantly improved accuracy and speed of antenna-placement independent of experience, and was particularly beneficial for novice users.

A prospective development study of software-guided radio-frequency ablation of primary and secondary liver tumors: Clinical intervention modelling, planning and proof for ablation cancer treatment (ClinicIMPPACT)

Introduction

Radio-frequency ablation (RFA) is a promising minimal-invasive treatment option for early liver cancer, however monitoring or predicting the size of the resulting tissue necrosis during the RFA-procedure is a challenging task, potentially resulting in a significant rate of under- or over treatments. Currently there is no reliable lesion size prediction method commercially available.

Objectives

ClinicIMPPACT is designed as multicenter-, prospective-, non-randomized clinical trial to evaluate the accuracy and efficiency of innovative planning and simulation software. 60 patients with early liver cancer will be included at four European clinical institutions and treated with the same RFA system. The preinterventional imaging datasets will be used for computational planning of the RFA treatment. All ablations will be simulated simultaneously to the actual RFA procedure, using the software environment developed in this project. The primary outcome measure is the comparison of the simulated ablation zones with the true lesions shown in follow-up imaging after one month, to assess accuracy of the lesion prediction.

Discussion

This unique multicenter clinical trial aims at the clinical integration of a dedicated software solution to accurately predict lesion size and shape after radiofrequency ablation of liver tumors. Accelerated and optimized workflow integration, and real-time intraoperative image processing, as well as inclusion of patient specific information, e.g. organ perfusion and registration of the real RFA needle position might make the introduced software a powerful tool for interventional radiologists to optimize patient outcomes.

Novel Simulation Device for Targeting Tumors in Laparoscopic Ablation: A Learning Curve Study

Introduction. A novel 3-dimensional (3D) guidance system was developed to aid accurate needle placement during ablation. Methods. Five novices and 5 experienced hepatobiliary surgeons were recruited. Using an agar block with analog tumor, participants targeted under 4 conditions: in-line with the ultrasound plane using ultrasound, in-line using 3D guidance, 45° off-axis using ultrasound, and off-axis using 3D guidance. Time to target the tumor, number of withdrawals, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index were collected. Initial and final parameters for each of the conditions were compared using a within-subjects paired t test. Results. A significant reduction was seen in the number of required withdrawals in all situations when using the 3D guidance (0.75 vs 3.65 in-line and 0.25 vs 3.6 for off-axis). Mental workload was significantly lower when using 3D guidance compared with ultrasound both for novices (29.85 vs 41.03) and experts (31.98 vs 44.57), P < .001 for both. The only difference in targeting time between first and last attempt was in the novice group during off-axis targeting using 3D guidance (115 vs 32.6 seconds, P = .03). Conclusion. Though 3D guidance appeared to decrease time to target, this was not statistically significant likely as a result of lack of power in our trial. Three-dimensional guidance did reduce the number of required withdrawals, potentially decreasing complications, as well as mental workload after proficiency was achieved. Furthermore, novices without experience in ultrasound were able to learn targeting with the 3D guidance system at a faster pace than targeting with ultrasound alone.

Laser ablation of liver tumors: An ancillary technique, or an alternative to radiofrequency and microwave?

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is currently the most popular and used ablation modality for the treatment of non surgical patients with primary and secondary liver tumors, but in the last years microwave ablation (MWA) is being technically improved and widely rediscovered for clinical use. Laser thermal ablation (LTA) is by far less investigated and used than RFA and MWA, but the available data on its effectiveness and safety are quite good and comparable to those of RFA and MWA. All the three hyperthermia-based ablative techniques, when performed by skilled operators, can successfully treat all liver tumors eligible for thermal ablation, and to date in most centers of interventional oncology or interventional radiology the choice of the technique usually depends on the physician’s preference and experience, or technical availability. However, RFA, MWA, and LTA have peculiar advantages and limitations that can make each of them more suitable than the other ones to treat patients and tumors with different characteristics. When all the three thermal ablation techniques are available, the choice among RFA, MWA, and LTA should be guided by their advantages and disadvantages, number, size, and location of the liver nodules, and cost-saving considerations, in order to give patients the best treatment option.

Local recurrence after laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of malignant liver tumors: Results of a contemporary series

INTRODUCTION

The aims of this study were to determine the incidence of Local recurrence (LR) in patients at long-term follow-up after laparoscopic RFA (LRFA) and also to determine the risk factors for LR from a contemporary series.

METHODS

Patients undergoing LRFA between 2005 and 2014 by a single surgeon were reviewed. Demographic and perioperative data were analyzed from a prospective database.

RESULTS

LRFA was performed on 316 patients with 901 lesions. Median follow-up was 25 months, with 76% of whom completed at least one year of follow-up. The LR rate was 18.4%. The LR in patients followed for less than 12 months was 13.8%, 20.3% for 12 months, and 19.7% for 18 months (P = 0.02). One-fourth of the LRs developed after the 1st year. Morbidity was 8.9% and mortality 0.3%. Tumor type, size, ablation margin, and surgeon experience affected LR, with tumor type, size, and ablation margin being independent.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that 14% of malignant liver tumors will develop LR within a year after LRFA. Additional 4% of the lesions will demonstrate recurrence within 1 cm of the ablation zone, mostly as part of a multifocal recurrence. Ablation margin is the only parameter that the surgeon can manipulate to decrease LR.

Thermal ablation in colorectal liver metastases: Lack of evidence or lack of capability to prove the evidence?

Many studies suggest that combined multimodality treatments including ablative therapies may achieve better outcomes than systemic chemotherapy alone in patients with colorectal liver metastases. Nevertheless, ablative therapies are not yet considered as effective options because their efficacy has never been proved by randomized controlled trials (RCT). However, there are in literature no trials that failed in demonstrating the effectiveness of ablative treatments: what are lacking, are the trials. All the attempts to organize phase III studies on this topic failed as a result of non accrual. Just one prospective RCT comparing radiofrequency ablation combined with systemic chemotherapy vs chemotherapy alone has been published. It was designed as a phase III study, but it was closed early because of slow accrual, and was downscaled to phase II study, with the consequent limits in drawing definite conclusions on the benefit of combined treatment. However, the combination treatment met the primary end point of the study and obtained a significantly higher 3-year progression-free survival than systemic chemotherapy alone. It is very unlikely that ultimate efficacy of ablation treatments will ever be tested again, and the best available evidence points toward a benefit for the combination strategy using ablative treatments and chemotherapy.

Mathematical model of the post-ablation enhancement zone as a tissue-level oedematic response

PURPOSE

A hyperdense rim is commonly observed at the periphery of ablation zones during post-ablation imaging (e.g. ultrasound) in tumours. A mathematical model has been developed here to investigate the occurrence of this enhanced rim, caused by the ablated cells, giving an indication of the location of the final ablation region.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The enhanced rim has been assumed here to be due to a tissue-level oedematic response of viable cells, which necessitated coupling multiple modelling elements in a spatially distributed system: thermal cell death, tissue-state dependent ion concentration dynamics, ion transport in the extracellular space, and osmotic cell volume regulation.

RESULTS

In response to the imposed temperature function, an ablation zone was predicted, distinguishing the tissue state between 'dead' and 'alive'. A disturbance in intracellular/extracellular ion concentrations was induced due to ion redistribution, which acted as an osmotic stress and contributed to significant cell swelling in a thin rim at the periphery of the ablation zone. It was also found that the rim size only changed slightly with varying lesion size, in response to different temperature profiles.

CONCLUSIONS

The study presents a novel mathematical model to understand the enhanced rim surrounding the ablation zone by assuming tissue-level cell oedema as the primary potential cause. The model links the direct response to thermal injury to an observable secondary response, which could be of clinical value in that the location of this bright ring could potentially be used for more accurate determination of the extent of the ablation zone.

Current strategies in interventional oncology of colorectal liver metastases

The adequate treatment of non-resectable liver metastases from colorectal cancer which are resistant to systemic chemotherapy currently provides a great challenge. The aim is to identify and review key strategies in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases. A search for current literature on the topic of interventional strategies for colorectal metastases was performed in Medline in order to achieve this goal. Studies before 2005 and with <20 patients treated for colorectal metastases were excluded. Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), transarterial embolization and selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) were identified as examples of regional strategies for colorectal liver metastases, utilizing the unique blood supply of the liver. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA), microwave ablation (MWA) and cryoablation were selected as examples for currently available ablative techniques. Median survival in the key studies reviewed ranged from 7.7 to 28.6 for TACE, 8.3-12.6 for SIRT, 8.2-53.2 for RFA and 29-43 months for MWA. After review of the literature, it can be concluded that interventional oncologic therapies are a safe and effective method for treating colorectal liver metastases. The use of new chemotherapeutic agents for local therapy and new ablation technologies and techniques may increase patient survival and allows a neoadjuvant therapy setting. In addition, a combination of local therapies may be used to increase effectiveness in the future, which is subject to further research.

Thermal ablation in colorectal liver metastases: Lack of evidence or lack of capability to prove the evidence?

Many studies suggest that combined multimodality treatments including ablative therapies may achieve better outcomes than systemic chemotherapy alone in patients with colorectal liver metastases. Nevertheless, ablative therapies are not yet considered as effective options because their efficacy has never been proved by randomized controlled trials (RCT). However, there are in literature no trials that failed in demonstrating the effectiveness of ablative treatments: what are lacking, are the trials. All the attempts to organize phase III studies on this topic failed as a result of non accrual. Just one prospective RCT comparing radiofrequency ablation combined with systemic chemotherapy vs chemotherapy alone has been published. It was designed as a phase III study, but it was closed early because of slow accrual, and was downscaled to phase II study, with the consequent limits in drawing definite conclusions on the benefit of combined treatment. However, the combination treatment met the primary end point of the study and obtained a significantly higher 3-year progression-free survival than systemic chemotherapy alone. It is very unlikely that ultimate efficacy of ablation treatments will ever be tested again, and the best available evidence points toward a benefit for the combination strategy using ablative treatments and chemotherapy.

Liver Ablation: Best Practice

Tumor ablation in the liver has evolved to become a well-accepted tool in the management of increasing complex oncologic patients. At present, percutaneous ablation is considered first-line therapy for very early and early hepatocellular carcinoma and second-line therapy for colorectal carcinoma liver metastasis. Because thermal ablation is a treatment option for other primary and secondary liver tumors, an understanding of the underlying tumor biology is important when weighing the potential benefits of ablation. This article reviews ablation modalities, indications, patient selection, and imaging surveillance, and emphasizes technique-specific considerations for the performance of percutaneous ablation.

Surgical resection versus ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma ≤ 3 cm: a population-based analysis

BACKGROUND

Ablation for ≤ 3-cm hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been demonstrated to be an effective treatment strategy. The present study sought to examine the outcomes of patients with ≤3 cm HCC after ablation versus resection.

METHODS

Patients treated by ablation or surgical resection for ≤ 3 cm T1 HCC were identified from the National Cancer Database (2002-2011). Survival outcomes were analysed according to propensity score modelling.

RESULTS

A total of 2804 patients underwent ablation (n = 1984) or a resection (n = 820) for solitary HCC ≤ 3 cm. Patients treated with ablation as compared with a resection had a higher frequency in alpha-fetoprotein level (AFP) elevation (46.5% versus 39.1%, P < 0.01) and the presence of cirrhosis (22.2% versus 14.5%, P < 0.01). Unadjusted overall survival (OS) at 3 and 5 years was greater after a resection (67%, 55%) versus ablation (52%, 36%, P < 0.01). After propensity score matching, the improved overall survival (OS) was sustained among the resection cohort (5 year OS: 54% versus 37%, P < 0.001). In multivariable models, a resection was independently associated with an improved OS [hazard ratio (HR): 0.62, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.48-0.81; P < 0.01].

CONCLUSION

Resection of HCC ≤ 3 cm results in better long-term survival as compared with ablation. Treatment strategies for small solitary HCC should emphasize a resection first approach, with ablation being reserved for patients precluded from surgery.

Radiofrequency ablation of unresectable colorectal liver metastases: trends in management and outcome during a decade at a single center

Background

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is widely used for treatment of colorectal liver metastases (CRLM).

Purpose

To evaluate the effect of increased experience in RFA of CRLM on morbidity and survival, and the trends in patient management and outcomes during the last decade.

Material and Methods

Hospital records of the initial 52 consecutive patients who underwent RFA (56 procedures/70 lesions) were retrospectively reviewed. The patients were divided into two groups according to time period of treatment, period I (2001–2006: n = 26) and period II (2007–2011: n = 26).

Results

Concomitant liver resection was performed in 15 patients in each period. Operative morbidity decreased from 47% to 19% (P = 0.047). Most complications were found in patients who underwent a concomitant liver resection and not related to the ablation per se. Local recurrence rate decreased from 19.4% to 12.9% (P = 0.526). At least one risk factor for recurrence was found in patients with local recurrence (n = 11): subcapsular localization (n = 4), tumor size >3 cm and subcapsular localization (n = 2), and perivascular localization (portal veins/hepatic veins) (n = 5). Median overall survival was 32 months in period I and 49 months in period II, whereas estimated 5-year survival was 19% and 36%, respectively (P = 0.09). Adjuvant chemotherapy was given to four patients (15.4%) in period I and 13 patients (50%) in period II (P = 0.017).

Conclusion

RFA alone or in combination with liver resection is a potentially curative treatment to selected patients with CRLM. Over time, the morbidity and survival have improved in RFA of CRLM. Although a possible effect of a learning curve should be taken into consideration in the appraisal of this improvement, it is more likely to be attributable to optimization of indication, development in surgical techniques, and increased use of perioperative chemotherapy.

Efficient Lattice Boltzmann Solver for Patient-Specific Radiofrequency Ablation of Hepatic Tumors

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is an established treatment for liver cancer when resection is not possible. Yet, its optimal delivery is challenged by the presence of large blood vessels and the time-varying thermal conductivity of biological tissue. Incomplete treatment and an increased risk of recurrence are therefore common. A tool that would enable the accurate planning of RFA is hence necessary. This manuscript describes a new method to compute the extent of ablation required based on the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) and patient-specific, pre-operative images. A detailed anatomical model of the liver is obtained from volumetric images. Then a computational model of heat diffusion, cellular necrosis, and blood flow through the vessels and liver is employed to compute the extent of ablated tissue given the probe location, ablation duration and biological parameters. The model was verified against an analytical solution, showing good fidelity. We also evaluated the predictive power of the proposed framework on ten patients who underwent RFA, for whom pre- and post-operative images were available. Comparisons between the computed ablation extent and ground truth, as observed in postoperative images, were promising (DICE index: 42%, sensitivity: 67%, positive predictive value: 38%). The importance of considering liver perfusion while simulating electrical-heating ablation was also highlighted. Implemented on graphics processing units (GPU), our method simulates 1 minute of ablation in 1.14 minutes, allowing near real-time computation.

Thermal ablation of colorectal liver metastases: a position paper by an international panel of ablation experts, The Interventional Oncology Sans Frontières meeting 2013

Objectives

Previous attempts at meta-analysis and systematic review have not provided clear recommendations for the clinical application of thermal ablation in metastatic colorectal cancer. Many authors believe that the probability of gathering randomised controlled trial (RCT) data is low. Our aim is to provide a consensus document making recommendations on the appropriate application of thermal ablation in patients with colorectal liver metastases.

Methods

This consensus paper was discussed by an expert panel at The Interventional Oncology Sans Frontières 2013. A literature review was presented. Tumour characteristics, ablation technique and different clinical applications were considered and the level of consensus was documented.

Results

Specific recommendations are made with regard to metastasis size, number, and location and ablation technique. Mean 31 % 5-year survival post-ablation in selected patients has resulted in acceptance of this therapy for those with technically inoperable but limited liver disease and those with limited liver reserve or co-morbidities that render them inoperable.

Conclusions

In the absence of RCT data, it is our aim that this consensus document will facilitate judicious selection of the patients most likely to benefit from thermal ablation and provide a unified interventional oncological perspective for the use of this technology.

Key Points

• Best results require due consideration of tumour size, number, volume and location.

• Ablation technology, imaging guidance and intra-procedural imaging assessment must be optimised.

• Accepted applications include inoperable disease due to tumour distribution or inadequate liver reserve.

• Other current indications include concurrent co-morbidity, patient choice and the test-of-time approach.

• Future applications may include resectable disease, e.g. for small solitary tumours.

Irreversible electroporation of unresectable soft tissue tumors with vascular invasion: effective palliation

Background

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) has recently been added as an additional therapeutic ablative option in patients with locally advanced cancers (LAC) involving vital structures. IRE delivers localized electric current by peri-tumoral discrete probes to attain irreversible changes in cell membrane leading to cell death. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term effects of IRE in the treatment of locally advanced tumors.

Methods

A prospective IRB approved evaluation of 107 consecutive patients from 7 institutions with tumors that had vascular invasion treated with IRE from 5/2010 to 1/2012. LAC was defined as primary tumor with <5 mm from major vascular structure based on pre-operative dynamic imaging or intra-operative criteria.

Results

IRE as utilized in LAC in the liver (N = 42, 40%) and pancreas (N = 37, 35%), with a median number of lesions being 2 with a mean target size of 3 cm. IRE attributable morbidity rate was 13.3% (total 29.3%) with high-grade complications seen in 4.19% (total 12.6%). No significant vascular complications were seen, and of the high-grade complications, bleeding (2), biliary complications (3) and DVT/PE (3) were the most common. Complications were more likely with pancreatic lesions (p = 0.0001) and open surgery (p = 0.001). Calculated local recurrence free survival (LRFS) was 12.7 months with a median follow up of 26 months censured at last follow up. The tumor target size was inversely associated with recurrence free survival (b = 0.81, 95% CI: 1.6 to 4.7, p value = 0.02) but this did not have a significant overall survival impact.

Conclusions

IRE represents a novel therapeutic option in patients with LAC involving vital structures that are not amenable to surgical resection. Acceptable to high local disease control and the long LRFS can be achieved with this therapy in combination with other multi-disciplinary therapies.

Thermal ablation of liver metastases from colorectal cancer: radiofrequency, microwave and laser ablation therapies

Surgery is currently considered the treatment of choice for patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases (CRLM) when resectable. The majority of these patients can also benefit from systemic chemotherapy. Recently, local or regional therapies such as thermal ablations have been used with acceptable outcomes. We searched the medical literature to identify studies and reviews relevant to radiofrequency (RF) ablation, microwave (MW) ablation and laser-induced thermotherapy (LITT) in terms of local progression, survival indexes and major complications in patients with CRLM. Reviewed literature showed a local progression rate between 2.8 and 29.7 % of RF-ablated liver lesions at 12-49 months follow-up, 2.7-12.5 % of MW ablated lesions at 5-19 months follow-up and 5.2 % of lesions treated with LITT at 6-month follow-up. Major complications were observed in 4-33 % of patients treated with RF ablation, 0-19 % of patients treated with MW ablation and 0.1-3.5 % of lesions treated with LITT. Although not significantly different, the mean of 1-, 3- and 5-year survival rates for RF-, MW- and laser ablated lesions was (92.6, 44.7, 31.1 %), (79, 38.6, 21 %) and (94.2, 61.5, 29.2 %), respectively. The median survival in these methods was 33.2, 29.5 and 33.7 months, respectively. Thermal ablation may be an appropriate alternative in patients with CRLM who have inoperable liver lesions or have operable lesions as an adjunct to resection. However, further competitive evaluation should clarify the efficacy and priority of these therapies in patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases.

Irreversible electroporation ablation (IRE) of unresectable soft tissue tumors: learning curve evaluation in the first 150 patients treated

Background

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a novel technology that uses peri-target discrete probes to deliver high-voltage localized electric current to induce cell death without thermal-induced coagulative necrosis. “Learnability” and consistently effective results by novice practitioners is essential for determining acceptance of novel techniques. This multi-center prospectively-collected database study evaluates the learning curve of IRE.

Methods

Analysis of 150 consecutive patients over 7 institutions from 9/2010-7/2012 was performed with patients treated divided into 3 groups A (1^st 50 patients treated), B (2^nd 50) and C (3^rd 50 patients treated) chronologically and analyzed for outcomes.

Results

A total of 167 IRE procedures were performed, with a majority being liver(39.5%) and pancreatic(35.5%) lesions. The three groups were similar with respect to co-morbidities and demographics. Group C had larger lesions (3.9vs3cm,p=0.001), more numerous lesions (3.2vs2.2,p=0.07), more vascular invasion(p=0.001), underwent more associated procedures(p=0.001) and had longer operative times(p<0.001). Despite this, they had similar complication and high-grade complication rates(p=0.24). Attributable morbidity rate was 13.3%(total 29.3%) and high-grade complications were seen in 4.19%(total 12.6%). Pancreatic lesions(p=0.001) and laparotomy(p=0.001) were associated with complications.

Conclusion

The review represents that single largest review of IRE soft tissue ablation demonstrating initial patient selection and safety. Over time, complex treatments of larger lesions and lesions with greater vascular involvement were performed without a significant increase in adverse effects or impact on local relapse free survival. This evolution demonstrates the safety profile of IRE and speed of graduation to more complex lesions, which was greater than 5 cases by institution. IRE is a safe and effective alternative to conventional ablation with a demonstrable learning curve of at least 5 cases to become proficient.

Ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma: validating the 3-cm breakpoint

BACKGROUND

Although many previous studies on local ablation outcomes for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have dichotomized tumor size with a 3-cm cutoff to determine prognostic significance, a growing number of reports describe excellent outcomes for larger tumors. To address the logic of this 3-cm cutoff beyond small single-center experiences, we stratified patients by 1-cm tumor size intervals and hypothesized that disease-specific survival (DSS) would not vary significantly between adjacent groups.

METHODS

Patients treated with local ablation for T1 HCC (≤8 cm) were identified from the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database (2004-2008). Log-rank tests and multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to compare DSS curves of adjacent study groups.

RESULTS

There were 1,083 patients included in the study (26 % female, median age: 62 years). The 3-year DSS was significantly lower in patients with 3- to 4-cm tumors compared to 2- to 3-cm tumors (58 vs. 72 %, p = 0.002). In adjusted models, DSS did not vary significantly between any size intervals up to 3 cm. Patients with 3- to 4-cm tumors, however, had a poorer prognosis compared with patients with 2- to 3-cm tumors (hazard ratio: 1.6, 95 % confidence interval: 1.18-2.18, p = 0.002). DSS also fell when tumor size increased from 5-6 to 6-7 cm (53 vs. 21 %, 0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes the 3-cm size, and possibly the 6-cm size, as informative predictive thresholds when ablating HCC, because variability of DSS occurred specifically at these tumor sizes. Future research in this field should either adopt a 3-cm breakpoint or provide evidence for alternative thresholds.

Radiofrequency ablation versus resection for colorectal cancer liver metastases: a meta-analysis

Background

No randomized controlled trial (RCT) has yet been performed to provide the evidence to clarify the therapeutic debate on liver resection (LR) and radiofrequency ablation (RFA) in treating colorectal liver metastases (CLM). The meta-analysis was performed to summarize the evidence mostly from retrospective clinical trials and to investigate the effect of LR and RFA.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Systematic literature search of clinical studies was carried out to compare RFA and LR for CLM in Pubmed, Embase and the Cochrane Library Central databases. The meta-analysis was performed using risk ratio (RR) and random effect model, in which 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for RR were calculated. Primary outcomes were the overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) at 3 and 5 years plus mortality and morbidity. 1 prospective study and 12 retrospective studies were finally eligible for meta-analysis. LR was significantly superior to RFA in 3 -year OS (RR 1.377, 95% CI: 1.246–1.522); 5-year OS (RR: 1.474, 95%CI: 1.284–1.692); 3-year DFS (RR 1.735, 95% CI: 1.483–2.029) and 5-year DFS (RR 2.227, 95% CI: 1.823–2.720). The postoperative morbidity was higher in LR (RR: 2.495, 95% CI: 1.881–3.308), but no significant difference was found in mortality between LR and RFA. The data from the 3 subgroups (tumor<3 cm; solitary tumor; open surgery or laparoscopic approach) showed significantly better OS and DFS in patients who received surgical resection.

Conclusions/Significances

Although multiple confounders exist in the clinical trials especially the bias in patient selection, LR was significantly superior to RFA in the treatment of CLM, even when conditions limited to tumor<3 cm, solitary tumor and open surgery or laparoscopic (lap) approach. Therefore, caution should be taken when treating CLM with RFA before more supportive evidences for RFA from RCTs are obtained.

Crepuscular rays for tumor accessibility planning

In modern clinical practice, planning access paths to volumetric target structures remains one of the most important and most complex tasks, and a physician's insufficient experience in this can lead to severe complications or even the death of the patient. In this paper, we present a method for safety evaluation and the visualization of access paths to assist physicians during preoperative planning. As a metaphor for our method, we employ a well-known, and thus intuitively perceivable, natural phenomenon that is usually called crepuscular rays. Using this metaphor, we propose several ways to compute the safety of paths from the region of interest to all tumor voxels and show how this information can be visualized in real-time using a multi-volume rendering system. Furthermore, we show how to estimate the extent of connected safe areas to improve common medical 2D multi-planar reconstruction (MPR) views. We evaluate our method by means of expert interviews, an online survey, and a retrospective evaluation of 19 real abdominal radio-frequency ablation (RFA) interventions, with expert decisions serving as a gold standard. The evaluation results show clear evidence that our method can be successfully applied in clinical practice without introducing substantial overhead work for the acting personnel. Finally, we show that our method is not limited to medical applications and that it can also be useful in other fields.

Image-based multi-scale modelling and validation of radio-frequency ablation in liver tumours

The treatment of cancerous tumours in the liver remains clinically challenging, despite the wide range of treatment possibilities, including radio-frequency ablation (RFA), high-intensity focused ultrasound and resection, which are currently available. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. For non- or minimally invasive modalities, such as RFA, considered here, it is difficult to monitor the treatment in vivo. This is particularly problematic in the liver, where large blood vessels act as heat sinks, dissipating delivered heat and shrinking the size of the lesion (the volume damaged by the heat treatment) locally; considerable experience is needed on the part of the clinician to optimize the heat treatment to prevent recurrence. In this paper, we outline our work towards developing a simulation tool kit that could be used both to optimize treatment protocols in advance and to train the less-experienced clinicians for RFA treatment of liver tumours. This tool is based on a comprehensive mathematical model of bio-heat transfer and cell death. We show how simulations of ablations in two pigs, based on individualized imaging data, compare directly with experimentally measured lesion sizes and discuss the likely sources of error and routes towards clinical implementation. This is the first time that such a 'loop' of mathematical modelling and experimental validation in vivo has been performed in this context, and such validation enables us to make quantitative estimates of error.

Ablative therapies for colorectal liver metastases: a systematic review

AIM

The standard treatment for colorectal liver metastases (CRLM) is surgical resection. Only 20-30% of patients are deemed suitable for surgery. Recently, much attention has focused on ablative therapies either to treat unresectable CRLM or to extend the margins of resectability. This review aims to assess the long-term outcome and complication rates of various ablative therapies used in the management of CRLM.

METHOD

A literature search was performed of electronic databases including Medline, Cochrane Collaboration Library and the National Library of Medicine's ClinicalTrials.gov. Inclusion criteria were ablation for CRLM with minimum 1 year follow-up and >10 patients, published between January 1994 and January 2010.

RESULTS

In all, 226 potentially relevant studies were identified, of which 75 met the inclusion criteria. Cryotherapy (26 studies) had local recurrence rates of 12-39%, with mean 1-, 3- and 5-year survival rates of 84%, 37% and 17%. The major complication rate ranged from 7% to 66%. Microwave ablation (13 studies) had a local recurrence rate of 5-13%, with a mean 1-, 3- and 5-year survival of 73%, 30% and 16%, and a major complication rate ranging from 3% to 16%. Radiofrequency ablation (36 studies) had a local recurrence rate of 10-31%, with a mean 1-, 3- and 5-year survival of 85%, 36% and 24%, with major complication rate ranging from 0% to 33%.

CONCLUSION

Ablative therapies offer significantly improved survival compared with palliative chemotherapy alone with 5-year survival rates of 17-24%. Complication rates amongst commonly used techniques are low.

Radiofrequency ablation of colorectal hepatic metastases

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) may be performed intraoperatively, laparoscopically, or percutaneously. The percutaneous approach is associated with the least procedural risk and may be performed under local anesthesia. Percutaneous RFA should be considered a primary treatment option for patients with unresectable hepatic tumors or conditions that prohibit general anesthesia or abdominal surgery. Continually improving thermal ablation and imaging technologies are likely to further increase tumor ablation efficacy and expand its role in treatment of hepatic metastases.

Complications of intraoperative radiofrequency ablation of liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Intraoperative radiofrequency ablation (IRFA) of liver metastases can be used to treat patients with complex tumours that are unsuitable for parenchymal resection alone. This systematic review assesses the frequency, patterns and severity of complications associated with this procedure.

METHODS

We carried out a bibliographic search on MEDLINE focused on IRFA for liver metastases, excluding hepatocarcinomas, and on intraoperative use, excluding percutaneous application.

RESULTS

Thirty papers published between 1999 and 2007 were analysed. They covered a total of 2822 patients and 1755 IRFA procedures. The indications and techniques for IRFA differ from those for percutaneous treatment, as do associated results and complications. Specific complications associated with IRFA, such as liver abscesses, biliary stenoses and vascular thromboses, are directly correlated with the indications and associated procedures. Published results should be interpreted with caution as IRFA can be used alone or combined with parenchymal resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific complications related to IRFA are rare, especially for lesions of <35 mm in size located far from a main biliary duct, when additional septic procedures are not used. A lesion-by-lesion approach based on the benefit : risk ratio should therefore be used in the process of making surgical decisions. Combining resection with IRFA leads to higher morbidity, especially in difficult patients with numerous bilateral lesions, but may be necessary to achieve R0 (microscopically negative margins) outcomes.

Colorectal liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Despite major advances in therapies for liver metastases, colorectal cancer remains one of the commonest causes of cancer-related deaths in the UK.

SOURCES OF DATA

The international literature on the management of colorectal liver metastases (CLM) was reviewed.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

Due to a combination of highly active systemic agents and low perioperative mortality achieved by high-volume centres, a growing number of patients are being offered liver resection with curative intent. Patients with bilobar and/or extrahepatic disease who would previously have received palliative treatment only, are undergoing major surgery with good results. This review focuses on preoperative evaluation, surgical planning and the role of adjuvant therapies in the management of patients with CLM.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

Can ablative therapies match the outcomes of surgical resection? How can even more patients be rendered resectable?

GROWING POINTS

The use of other therapies, such as radiofrequency ablation and selective internal radiation therapy.

AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

New chemotherapy regimens for neo-adjuvant therapy and the development of new modalities of liver tumour ablation.

Imaging to optimize liver tumor ablation

Surgical resection remains the ideal treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma and metastasis to the liver. Many alternatives are available for treatment of nonsurgical candidates. Regardless of treatment, optimizing imaging in the pretreatment, treatment and post-treatment settings is critical in order to lower the rates of local tumor progression and maximize the effectiveness of treatment that may result in prolonged survival. This article summarizes some basic imaging techniques of primary and metastatic liver tumors with a focus on how to optimize their treatment with ablation.

Long-term outcomes following hepatic resection and radiofrequency ablation of colorectal liver metastases

Recently some have called for randomized controlled trials comparing RFA to hepatic resection, particularly for patients with only a few small metastases. The objectives were to compare local recurrence and survival following RFA and hepatic resection for colorectal liver metastases. This was a retrospective review of open RFA and hepatic resection for colorectal liver metastases between January 1998 and May 2007. All patients who had RFA were considered to have unresectable disease. 58 patients had hepatic resection and 43 had RFA. A 5-year survival after resection was 43% compared to 23% after RFA. For patients with solitary lesions, a 5-year survival was 48% after resection and 15% after RFA. Sixty percent of patients suffered local recurrences after RFA compared to 7% after hepatic resection. RFA is inferior to resection. The results observed in this study support the consensus that RFA cannot be considered an equivalent procedure to hepatic resection.