Characterising professional drivers' exposure to traffic-related air pollution: Evidence for reduction strategies from in-vehicle personal exposure monitoring

Estimating exposure to pollutants generated from indoor and outdoor sources within vulnerable populations using personal air quality monitors: A London case study

Personal exposure to air pollution can originate from indoor or outdoor sources, depending on location and activity. This study aimed to quantify personal exposure from each source separately, allowing comparison of the associated epidemiological estimates from each source type. We utilised 12,901 participant-day personal measurements of exposure to multiple pollutants collected from 344 London dwelling participants of four panel studies conducted between 2015 and 2019. A four-step process was applied to personal measurements incorporating 1) GPS spatial analysis including address identification and location tagging; 2) estimating outdoor home pollutant levels from matched fixed ambient monitors; 3) calculation of infiltration efficiency when participants were at home; and 4) indoor and outdoor source separation for personal exposure measurements. From the results, our participants with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) dataset had an average (SD) personal exposure from outdoor sources of 4.0 (1.3) μg/m3 for NO2 and 5.1 (3.0) μg/m3 for PM2.5, the school children's average (SD) personal exposure to PM2.5 from outdoor sources was 5.5 (4.3) μg/m3, the professional drivers' average (SD) personal exposure to black carbon from outdoor sources was 1.7 (1.0) μg/m3, and the healthy young adults' average (SD) personal exposure to black carbon from outdoor sources was 1.2 (0.5) μg/m3. Compared to the average total personal exposures, outdoor sources accounted for 49 % of NO2 exposure, 41 % to 55 % of PM2.5, and 60 % to 85 % of black carbon, dependent on the panel study - demonstrating a strong influence from outdoor sources for personal exposures to air pollution in London. Our findings highlighted that endeavours should continue to be made towards reducing pollution from both outdoor and indoor sources. The between-panel and within-panel exposure differences, derived from our novel partitioning methodology, can contribute to the estimation of health effects from indoor and outdoor sources and inform targeted interventions for vulnerable groups.

Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding air pollution among traffic polices in Dhaka city, Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The increasing number of motor vehicles in Dhaka city is contributing to a rise in air pollution. Prolonged exposure to vehicle emissions has led to various health issues for everyone, but traffic policies might be particularly affected. This study aims to evaluate their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding air pollution, with the goal of raising awareness and promoting healthier practices to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional survey was carried out from January to March 2023 across five zones in Dhaka City, Bangladesh. Using a convenience sampling method, 401 male participants with a mean age = 39.24 ± 6.25 years were recruited. The survey employed a semi-structured questionnaire that covered informed consent, socio-demographic data, and included sections on knowledge (9 items), attitudes (6 items), and practices (7 items) related to air pollution and its health effects. Data analysis was conducted with Microsoft Excel (version 2019), SPSS (version 25.0), and STATA (version 15.0).

RESULT

The average scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practices were 7.62 out of 9, 11.06 out of 18, and 14.53 out of 21, respectively. Higher knowledge scores were associated with education (p < 0.001), higher monthly family income (p < 0.001), and having 15 or fewer years of work experience (p = 0.040). Attitudes were positively linked to education (p < 0.001), higher income (p < 0.001), working in the same area for over a year (p < 0.001), asthma (p = 0.042), cardiovascular diseases (p = 0.027), and coughing symptoms (p < 0.001). Practices were positively influenced by lower income (p = 0.031), absence of breathing problems/asthma (p = 0.023), and absence of coughing symptoms (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that education, income, and work experience are likely influential factors shaping knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding air pollution. There appears to be a probable association between prolonged exposure to air pollution and an increased risk of respiratory, cardiovascular, and eye problems among Dhaka's traffic police. The authors anticipate that implementing stricter air quality regulations, promoting the use of protective gear, conducting regular health check-ups, and raising public awareness could significantly reduce these health risks.

Carbon monoxide exposure inside UK road vehicles: a pilot study

Environmental CO presents a risk to public health. The effects of chronic low-level CO exposure are well-documented, with pregnant women, the unborn and children being particularly vulnerable. Although a number of studies have investigated the phenomenon, its current prevalence in the UK has not been examined. To address this, this study sampled CO levels from 33 vehicles driven by 28 participants. Drivers were members of the public using their cars for purposes including commutes and personal use. The study excluded vehicles carrying smokers. In all, 20 vehicles logged (60.6 per cent) logged non-zero CO at least once. Mean average ppm CO exceeded the WHO target limit of 4mg/m3 (3.49 ppm) in 4 vehicles; peak ppm CO exceeded this limit in 13 vehicles. Peak single-journey mean CO was 192.17 ppm and overall mean all-journey CO was 6.63 ppm, median 0.02 ppm. Patterns of detected CO, in some cars, were suggestive of internal fume leakage. There was a significant positive correlation between vehicle age and in-cabin CO levels. While the sample size was small, these results give grounds to consider that vehicle drivers and passengers in the UK may be exposed to CO within the passenger cabin due to leakage from the exhaust system. Wider investigation of the issue, in order to determine an appropriate public health policy response, is warranted.

The dual effects of Benzo(a)pyrene/Benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide on DNA Methylation

Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is one of the most thoroughly studied polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) and a widespread organic pollutant in various areas of human life. Its teratogenic, immunotoxic and carcinogenic effects on organisms are well documented and widely recognized by researchers. In the body, BaP is enzymatically converted to form a more active benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE). BaP/BPDE has the potential to trigger gene mutations, influence epigenetic modifications and cause damage to cellular structures, ultimately contributing to disease onset and progression. However, there are different points of view when studying epigenetics using BaP/BPDE. On the one hand, it is claimed in cancer research that BaP/BPDE contributes to gene hypermethylation and, in particular, induces the hypermethylation of tumor's suppressor gene promoters, leading to gene silencing and subsequent cancer development. Conversely, studies in human and animal populations suggest that exposure to BaP results in genome-wide DNA hypomethylation, potentially leading to adverse outcomes in inflammatory diseases. This apparent contradiction has not been summarized in research for almost four decades. This article presents a comprehensive review of the current literature on the influence of BaP/BPDE on DNA methylation regulation. It demonstrates that BaP/BPDE exerts a dual-phase regulatory effect on methylation, which is influenced by factors such as the concentration and duration of BaP/BPDE exposure, experimental models and detection methods used in various studies. Acute/high concentration exposure to BaP/BPDE often results in global demethylation of DNA, which is associated with inhibition of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) after exposure. At certain specific gene loci (e.g., RAR-β), BPDE can form DNA adducts, recruiting DNMT3 and leading to hypermethylation at specific sites. By integrating these different mechanisms, our goal is to unravel the patterns and regulations of BaP/BPDE-induced DNA methylation changes and provide insights into future precision therapies targeting epigenetics.

Investigating the filtration performance and service life of vehicle cabin air filters in China

To protect occupants in vehicle cabin environments from the health risks of high concentrations of particulate matter (PM), it is important to install vehicle cabin air filter (VCAF) to eliminate PM. In this study, we investigated the filtration performance of 22 VCAFs. Results showed that the minimum average filtration efficiency was 56.1 % for particles with a diameter of 0.1-0.3 μm, a pressure drop of 33.2-250 Pa at air velocity of 2.5 m/s, and the dust-holding capacity ranged from 5.8 to 19.4 g. In addition, as the filter area increased from 0.23 m2 to 0.50 m2, the filtration efficiency for particles with a diameter of 0.1-0.3 μm increased from 56.7 % to 77.5 %, the pressure drop decreased from 96.1 to 62.5 Pa, and the dust holding capacity increased 2.7 times. Furthermore, we compared the service life of VCAF from 31 major Chinese cities and found that the service life varied greatly from maximum of 1730 h for Haikou to minimum of 352 h for Shijiazhuang. Considering occupant health risks, Beijing requires that VCAFs have PM2.5 filtration efficiency at least 88.1 %, and Liaoning requires minimum of 97.5 %. Hence, choosing the appropriate VCAF based on the atmospheric environment of different cities deserves our attention.

Systematic review of best practices for GPS data usage, processing, and linkage in health, exposure science and environmental context research

Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is increasingly used in health research to capture individual mobility and contextual and environmental exposures. However, the tools, techniques and decisions for using GPS data vary from study to study, making comparisons and reproducibility challenging.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this systematic review were to (1) identify best practices for GPS data collection and processing; (2) quantify reporting of best practices in published studies; and (3) discuss examples found in reviewed manuscripts that future researchers may employ for reporting GPS data usage, processing and linkage of GPS data in health studies.

DESIGN

A systematic review.

DATA SOURCES

Electronic databases searched (24 October 2023) were PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022322166).

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Included peer-reviewed studies published in English met at least one of the criteria: (1) protocols involving GPS for exposure/context and human health research purposes and containing empirical data; (2) linkage of GPS data to other data intended for research on contextual influences on health; (3) associations between GPS-measured mobility or exposures and health; (4) derived variable methods using GPS data in health research; or (5) comparison of GPS tracking with other methods (eg, travel diary).

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

We examined 157 manuscripts for reporting of best practices including wear time, sampling frequency, data validity, noise/signal loss and data linkage to assess risk of bias.

RESULTS

We found that 6% of the studies did not disclose the GPS device model used, only 12.1% reported the per cent of GPS data lost by signal loss, only 15.7% reported the per cent of GPS data considered to be noise and only 68.2% reported the inclusion criteria for their data.

CONCLUSIONS

Our recommendations for reporting on GPS usage, processing and linkage may be transferrable to other geospatial devices, with the hope of promoting transparency and reproducibility in this research.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022322166.

In-vehicle exposure to NO2 and PM2.5: A comprehensive assessment of controlling parameters and reduction strategies to minimise personal exposure

Vehicles are the third most occupied microenvironment, other than home and workplace, in developed urban areas. Vehicle cabins are confined spaces where occupants can mitigate their exposure to on-road nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations. Understanding which parameters exert the greatest influence on in-vehicle exposure underpins advice to drivers and vehicle occupants in general. This study assessed the in-vehicle NO2 and PM2.5 levels and developed stepwise general additive mixed models (sGAMM) to investigate comprehensively the combined and individual influences of factors that influence the in-vehicle exposures. The mean in-vehicle levels were 19 ± 18 and 6.4 ± 2.7 μg/m3 for NO2 and PM2.5, respectively. sGAMM model identified significant factors explaining a large fraction of in-vehicle NO2 and PM2.5 variability, R2 = 0.645 and 0.723, respectively. From the model's explained variability on-road air pollution was the most important predictor accounting for 22.3 and 30 % of NO2 and PM2.5 variability, respectively. Vehicle-based predictors included manufacturing year, cabin size, odometer reading, type of cabin filter, ventilation fan speed power, window setting, and use of air recirculation, and together explained 48.7 % and 61.3 % of NO2 and PM2.5 variability, respectively, with 41.4 % and 51.9 %, related to ventilation preference and type of filtration media, respectively. Driving-based parameters included driving speed, traffic conditions, traffic lights, roundabouts, and following high emitters and accounted for 22 and 7.4 % of in-vehicle NO2 and PM2.5 exposure variability, respectively. Vehicle occupants can significantly reduce their in-vehicle exposure by moderating vehicle ventilation settings and by choosing an appropriate cabin air filter.

Association between mercury exposure and lung function in young adults: A prospective cohort study in Shandong, China

BACKGROUND

Mercury has been associated with many adverse health outcomes. However, limited studies have explored the association between blood mercury concentrations and lung function.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between blood mercury concentrations and lung function among young adults.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort study among 1800 college students based on the Chinese Undergraduates Cohort in Shandong, China during August 2019 and September 2020. Lung function indicators including forced vital capacity (FVC, ml), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁, ml) and peak expiratory flow (PEF, ml) were collected with a spirometers (Chestgraph Jr. HI-101, Chest M.I., Tokyo, Japan). The blood mercury concentration was measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. We divided participants into low (≤25 percentiles), intermediate (25-75 percentiles), and high (≥75 percentile) subgroups according to blood mercury concentrations. The multiple linear regression model was used to examine the associations between blood mercury concentrations and lung function changes. Stratification analyses by sex and fish consumption frequency were also conducted.

RESULTS

The results showed that each 2-fold increase in blood mercury concentrations was significantly associated with -70.75 ml [95 % confidence interval (CI): -122.35, -19.15] change in FVC, -72.68 ml (95%CI: -120.36, -25.00) in FEV₁, and -158.06 ml (95%CI: -283.77, -32.35) in PEF. The effect was more pronounced among participants with high blood mercury and male participants. Participants who consumed fish more than once a week more likely to be affected by mercury.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicated that blood mercury was significantly associated with decreased lung function in young adults. It is necessary to implement corresponding measures to reduce the effect of mercury on the respiratory system, especially for men and people who consumed fish more than once a week.

Toward Cleaner Transport Alternatives: Reduction in Exposure to Air Pollutants in a Mass Public Transport

Commuters are often exposed to higher concentrations of air pollutants due to its proximity to mobile sources. Despite recent trends in urban transport toward zero- and low-tailpipe emission alternatives, the assessments of the impact of these transformations on commuter exposure are limited by the low frequency of such studies. In this work, we use a unique data set of personal exposure concentration measurements collected over the span of 5 years to analyze changes due to the introduction of a new fleet for Bogotá's Bus Rapid Transit System. In that system, over a thousand Euro-II and -III diesel-powered buses were replaced with Euro-VI compressed natural gas and filter-equipped Euro-V diesel buses. We measured personal exposure concentrations of equivalent black carbon (eBC), fine particulate (PM_2.5), and ultra fine particles (UFP) during and after the retirement of old buses and the introduction of new ones. Observations collected prior to the fleet renewal were used as baseline and later compared to data collected over two follow-up campaigns in 2019 and 2020. Significant reductions in the concentration of PM_2.5 and eBC were observed during the 2019 campaign, with a 48% decrease for mean in-bus eBC (89.9 to 46.4 μg m^-3) and PM_2.5 (180.7 to 95.4 μg m^-3) concentrations. Further reductions were observed during the 2020 follow-up, when the fleet renovation was completed, with mean in-bus eBC decreasing to 17.7 μg m^-3 and PM_2.5 to 42.3 μg m^-3. These observations imply nearly a 5-fold reduction in eBC exposure and a 4-fold decrease in PM_2.5. There was a much smaller reduction of in-bus UFP concentration between 2019 and 2020, indicating a persistent presence of high particle number concentrations in the near-road environment despite the fleet renovation process. In-bus UFP concentrations ranged between 65 000 and 104 500 cm^-3 during the follow-up campaigns. The results in this work illustrate the immediate benefits of reducing personal exposure through the adoption of vehicles with more stringent emission standards.

Identifying trends in ultrafine particle infiltration and carbon dioxide ventilation in 92 vehicle models

There has been ongoing research aimed at reducing pollution concentrations in vehicles due to the high exposure which occurs in this setting. These studies have found using recirculate (RC) settings substantially reduces in-cabin traffic-related pollution concentrations but possibly leads to an adverse accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from driver respiration. The aim of this study was to highlight how vehicle models and ventilation settings affect in-cabin concentrations to ultrafine particles (UFP) and CO₂ in real-world conditions. We assessed the ability of different vehicles to balance reductions in UFP against the build-up of in-cabin CO₂ concentrations by measuring these pollutants concurrently both inside and outside the vehicle to derive an in/out ratio. When ventilation settings were set to RC, UFP concentrations inside the vehicles (median: 3205 pt./cm³) were 86% lower compared to outside air (OA) (23,496 pt./cm³) across a 30-min real-world driving route. However, CO₂ concentrations demonstrated a rapid linear increase under RC settings, at times exceeding 2500 ppm. These concentrations have previously been associated with decreased cognitive performance. Our study did not find an effect of gasoline fuelled vehicles affecting in-cabin UFP levels compared to hybrid or electric vehicles, suggesting that self-pollution was not an issue. We also found that certain vehicle models were better at reducing both in-cabin UFP and CO₂ concentrations. The results suggest that under RC settings in/out CO₂ ratios are largely determined by the leakiness of the vehicle cabin, whereas in/out UFP ratios are primarily determined by the efficacy of the in-built air filter in the vehicles ventilation system.

Life-time summer heat exposure and lung function in young adults: A retrospective cohort study in Shandong China

BACKGROUND

The health impact of short-term heat exposure is well documented. However, limited studies explored the association between life-time summer heat exposure and lung function.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between life-time summer heat exposure and lung function among young adults.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study among 1928 college students in Shandong, China from September 4, 2020 to November 15, 2020. Life-time summer heat exposure for participants were estimated based on the nearest station meteorological data after the participant's birth date and divided by their learning phases. Lung function indicators included forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1). A multiple linear regression model was conducted to examine the associations between summer heat exposure and lung function. Stratificationanalysis by cooling facilities and respiratory diseases history were also conducted.

RESULTS

The study subjects had a slight majority of women (58.8%), age 19.2 ± 0.6 years. Each 1 °C increase in life-time summer mean temperature was associated with 1.07% [95% confidence interval (CI): -1.95-0.18%] decrease in FVC and 0.88% (95 %CI: -1.71, -0.05%) decrease in FEV1. Participants with respiratory diseases and non-cooling facility users were more susceptible to summer heat exposure. The usage of fan and air condition could effectively reduce the deleterious heat effects on lung function.

CONCLUSION

Life-time summer heat exposure is significantly associated with the reduction of lung function in young adults. Cooling facilities are necessary for pre-school children to reduce heat effects. Fan and air-condition are effective cooling facilities, especially for people with respiratory diseases.

Changes in air quality in-taxis and in working conditions of taxi drivers pre- and post-lockdown, during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Paris area

We evaluated the impact of the lockdown restriction measures in the Paris area on the variation of in-vehicle ultrafine particle (UFP) and black carbon (BC) concentrations between the pre- and post-lockdown period and professional drivers' working conditions and practices. The study was conducted with 33 taxi drivers. UFP and BC were measured inside their vehicles with DiSCmini^® and microAeth^® , respectively, on two typical working days pre- and post-lockdown. Job characteristics were self-reported. Our results showed that post-lockdown, both the number of clients and journey duration significantly decreased. Taxi drivers opened their windows significantly more and reduced the use of air recirculation. UFP decreased significantly by 32% and BC by 31% post-lockdown, with a weaker positive correlation compared to pre-lockdown. The reduction of in-vehicle UFP was due mainly to the reduction of traffic flow and ventilation settings, though the latter probably varied according to traffic conditions. The variation of in-vehicle BC also tended to be related to the decrease in traffic flow post-lockdown. We emphasize the role of traffic emissions on in-vehicle air pollution and that preventive measures such ventilation settings would help to minimize the exposure of professional drivers and passengers to air pollutants.