Screening of regulated aromatic amines in clothing marketed in Brazil and Spain: Assessment of human health risks

Investigation of occurrence of aromatic amines in municipal wastewaters using passive sampling

Aromatic amines (AAs) are human-made compounds known for their mutagenic properties, entering surface waters from various sources, often originating as transformation products of dyes or pesticides. Despite their low concentrations in surface waters, AAs can exhibit mutagenicity. Our study focused on evaluating three passive samplers (PSs) for enriching these compounds from influent and effluent of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Brno, Czech Republic. The PSs tested included variants containing AttractSPE™ SDB-RPS sorbent disk, one with and one without a diffusive agarose hydrogel layer, and a modified Speedisk (Bakerbond Speedisk® H2O-Philic). PSs were deployed in wastewater (WW) for one to four weeks in various overlapping combinations, and the uptake of AAs to PSs was compared to their concentrations in 24-hour composite water samples. A targeted LC/MS analysis covered 42 amines, detecting 11 and 13 AAs in daily composite influent and effluent samples, respectively. In the influent, AAs ranged from 1.5 ng L-1 for 1-anilinonaphthalene to 1.0 μg L-1 for aniline, and the highest concentration among all measured amines was observed for cyclohexylamine at 2.9 μg L-1. In the effluent, concentrations ranged from 0.5 ng L-1 for 1-anilinonaphthalene to 88 ng L-1 for o-anisidine. PSs demonstrated comparable accumulation of amines, with integrative uptake up to 28 days in both influent and effluent and detection of up to 23 and 27 amines in influent and effluent, respectively; altogether 34 compounds were detected in the study. Sampling rates (Rs) were estimated for compounds present in at least 50 % of the samples and showing <40 % aqueous concentration variability, with robustness evaluated by comparing values for compounds in WWTP influent and effluent. Although all devices performed similarly, hydrogel-based PS exhibited superior performance in several criteria, including time integration and robustness of sampling rates, making it a suitable monitoring tool for AAs in WW.

Tracking Aromatic Amines from Sources to Surface Waters

This review examines the environmental occurrence and fate of aromatic amines (AAs), a group of environmental contaminants with possible carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. AAs are known to be partially responsible for the genotoxic traits of industrial wastewater (WW), and AA antioxidants are acutely toxic to some aquatic organisms. Still, there are gaps in the available data on sources, occurrence, transport, and fate in domestic WW and indoor environments, which complicate the prevention of adverse effects in aquatic ecosystems. We review key domestic sources of these compounds, including cigarette smoke and grilled protein-rich foods, and their presence indoors and in aquatic matrices. This provides a basis to evaluate the importance of nonindustrial sources to the overall environmental burden of AAs. Appropriate sampling techniques for AAs are described, including copper-phthalocyanine trisulfonate materials, XAD resins in solid-phase extraction, and solid-phase microextraction methods, which can offer insights into AA sources, transport, and fate. Further discussion is provided on potential progress in the research of AAs and their behavior in an aim to support the development of a more comprehensive understanding of their effects and potential environmental risks.

Amine Switchable Hydrophilic Solvent Vortex-Assisted Homogeneous Liquid-Liquid Microextraction and GC-MS for the Enrichment and Determination of 2, 6-DIPA Additive in Biodegradable Film

2, 6-diisopropylaniline (2, 6-DIPA) is a crucial non-intentionally organic additive that allows the assessment of the production processes, formulation qualities, and performance variations in biodegradable mulching film. Moreover, its release into the environment may have certain effects on human health. Hence, this study developed simultaneous heating hydrolysis-extraction and amine switchable hydrophilic solvent vortex-assisted homogeneous liquid-liquid microextraction for the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the 2, 6-DIPA additive and its corresponding isocyanates in poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) biodegradable agricultural mulching films. The heating hydrolysis-extraction conditions and factors influencing the efficiency of homogeneous liquid-liquid microextraction, such as the type and volume of amine, homogeneous-phase and phase separation transition pH, and extraction time were investigated and optimized. The optimum heating hydrolysis-extraction conditions were found to be a H2SO4 concentration of 2.5 M, heating temperature of 87.8 °C, and hydrolysis-extraction time of 3.0 h. As a switchable hydrophilic solvent, dipropylamine does not require a dispersant. Vortex assistance is helpful to speed up the extraction. Under the optimum experimental conditions, this method exhibits a better linearity (0.0144~7.200 μg mL-1 with R = 0.9986), low limit of detection and quantification (0.0033 μg g-1 and 0.0103 μg g-1), high extraction recovery (92.5~105.4%), desirable intra- and inter-day precision (relative standard deviation less than 4.1% and 4.7%), and high enrichment factor (90.9). Finally, this method was successfully applied to detect the content of the additive 2, 6-DIPA in PBAT biodegradable agricultural mulching films, thus facilitating production process monitoring or safety assessments.

Efficient Decolorization of the Poly-Azo Dye Sirius Grey by Coriolopsis gallica Laccase-Mediator System: Process Optimization and Toxicity Assessment

The textile industry produces high volumes of colored effluents that require multiple treatments to remove non-adsorbed dyes, which could be recalcitrant due to their complex chemical structure. Most of the studies have dealt with the biodegradation of mono or diazo dyes but rarely with poly-azo dyes. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to study the biodegradation of a four azo-bond dye (Sirius grey) and to optimize its decolorization conditions. Laccase-containing cell-free supernatant from the culture of a newly isolated fungal strain, Coriolopsis gallica strain BS9 was used in the presence of 1-hydroxybenzotriazol (HBT) to optimize the dye decolorization conditions. A Box-Benken design with four factors, namely pH, enzyme concentration, HBT concentration, and dye concentration, was performed to determine optimal conditions for the decolorization of Sirius grey. The optimal conditions were pH 5, 1 U/mL of laccase, 1 mM of HBT, and 50 mg/L of initial dye concentration, ensuring a decolorization yield and rate of 87.56% and 2.95%/min, respectively. The decolorized dye solution showed a decrease in its phytotoxicity (Germination index GI = 80%) compared to the non-treated solution (GI = 29%). This study suggests that the laccase-mediator system could be a promising alternative for dye removal from textile wastewater.

Evaluation of exposure to multiple organic pollutants in riparian communities of the Brazilian Amazon: Screening levels and potential health risks

Organic pollutants are widely distributed in the environment. Due to their physical and chemical characteristics, they tend to be biomagnified in food chains, mainly in aquatic organisms. Therefore, food consumption is a significant route of lifelong exposure. Although the Amazon River basin contains the highest freshwater biodiversity on Earth, there is scarce literature focusing on the levels of organic pollutants in the local population. The present study was aimed at assessing the levels of several environmental pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, bisphenols, parabens, and benzophenones) in urine samples from riverside communities along the Tapajós and Amazon Rivers in the Brazilian Amazon region. The results show a 100 % detection of naphthalene metabolites (namely, 1-hydroxy-naphthalene (1OH-NAP), 2-hydroxy-naphthalene (2OH-NAP)), with the highest levels belonging to benzylparaben (BzP) (17.3 ng/mL). Gender-specific analysis revealed that women had significantly higher levels of certain PAH metabolites (i.e., 1OH-NAP and 2-hydroxy-fluorene (2OH-FLU)) than men. In turn, most of the evaluated compounds were higher in urine samples from people living near the Amazon River, which presents increased traffic of boats and ships than the Tapajós River. On the other hand, the human health risk assessment suggested that all communities are at risk of suffering non-carcinogenic effects from exposure to PAHs. At the same time, they are also at risk of carcinogenic effects from exposure to benzo[a]pyrene metabolites. Thus, further studies are needed in order to evaluate the potential health effects of exposure to a mixture of these organic pollutants and other contaminants present in the area, such as mercury.

Assessment of urinary aromatic amines in Brazilian pregnant women and association with DNA damage: Influence of genetic diversity, lifestyle, and environmental and socioeconomic factors

Aromatic amines (AAs) are polar organic chemicals with a wide environmental distribution originating from various sources, such as tobacco smoke, diesel exhaust, and dermal absorption from textile products with azo dyes. The toxicity profile of AAs is directly related to the amino group's metabolic activation and the generation of the reactive intermediate, forming DNA adducts and potential carcinogenicity. Urinary levels of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8OHdG) are an important biomarker of DNA damage. Since AAs have been shown to cross the placental barrier, being a risk factor for adverse birth outcomes, prenatal exposure is a great public health concern. The present study aimed to measure the urinary levels of 58 AAs in Brazilian pregnant women (n = 300) and investigated the impact of this exposure on DNA damage by quantifying 8OHdG levels. The influence of tobacco smoke exposure and dermal absorption of AAs by clothes on urinary levels was also assessed. The results showed a 100% detection rate for eight AAs, two of them regulated by the European Union (2,6-dimethylaniline and 2,4-diaminotolune). Hundreds of AAs may be derived from aniline, which here showed a median of 1.38 ng/mL. Aniline also correlated positively with 2,6-dimethylaniline, p-aminophenol, and other AAs, suggesting exposure to multiple sources. The present findings suggest that both tobacco smoke and dermal contact with clothes containing azo dyes are potential sources that might strongly influence urinary levels of AAs in Brazilian pregnant women. A multiple regression linear model (R2 = 0.772) suggested that some regulated AAs (i.e., 2-naphthylamine and 4-aminobiphenyl), nicotine, smoke habit, age, and Brazilian region could induce DNA damage occurrence, increasing the levels of 8OHdG. Given the limited available data on human exposure to carcinogenic AAs, as well as the lack of toxicological information on those non-regulated, further studies focused on measuring their levels in human fluids and the potential exposure sources are clearly essential.

Non-regulated aromatic amines in clothing purchased in Spain and Brazil: Screening-level exposure and health impact assessment

The staggering amount of chemicals in clothes and their harmful effects on human health and the environment have attracted the attention of regulatory agencies and the scientific community worldwide. Azo dyes are synthetic dyestuffs with widespread use in textile industries, currently classified as emerging pollutants of great health concern to consumers. These compounds may release one or more aromatic amines (AAs) after reductive cleavage of their azo bounds. Twenty-two AAs have already been regulated due to their carcinogenic effects. However, since information on their potential toxicity is not currently available, several AAs have not been still regulated by the European Union. Considering this gap, the present study aimed to assess the levels of forty non-regulated AAs in 240 clothing items from Spain and Brazil. The potential impact on the health of vulnerable population groups after dermal exposure to those garments was also evaluated. In Brazil, at least one AA was detected in the clothes, while in samples obtained in Spain, only two of them showed values below the limit of detection for AAs. In 75 clothes, at least one of the measured AAs was higher than the hazardous threshold (30 mg/kg), which can mean risks to human health since these compounds are suspected to be mutagenic. Aniline, the most common AA, showed a high detection rate (82%) in clothes, with significantly higher concentrations in items commercialized in Brazil (0.35 vs. 0.17 mg/kg; p = 0.032). Moreover, o-aminobenzenesulfonic and p-phenylenediamine, suspected mutagenic, were found at relevant concentrations in several clothes, mainly made of synthetic fibers. In this study, the hazard index associated with exposure to AAs through clothing was low (0.006-0.13) for all the population groups of both countries in the medium-bound scenario. However, its value was close to 1 for Brazilian pregnant women (0.998) when the maximum concentration value was considered under an upper-bound scenario. The risk of exposure to non-regulated AAs may be underestimated since only dermal exposure was considered for risk assessment. Moreover, the co-occurrence of other carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic substances present in skin-contact clothes should mean an additional source of potential risk.

Dermal exposure to bisphenols in pregnant women's and baby clothes: Risk characterization

Textile manufacturing consists of a multiple-step process in which a wide range of chemicals is used, some of them remaining in the final product. Bisphenols (BPs) are non-intentionally added compounds in textiles, whose prolonged skin contact may mean a significant source of daily human exposure, especially in vulnerable groups of the population. The present study aimed to determine the levels of bisphenol A (BPA) and some BP analogs (BPB, BPF, and BPS) in 120 new clothes commercialized in Spain for pregnant women, newborns, and toddlers. In addition, exposure assessment and risk characterization were also carried out. Traces of BPA were found in all the samples, with a median concentration of 7.43 ng/g. The highest values were detected in textile samples made of polyester. Regarding natural fibers, higher concentrations of BPs were observed in garments made of conventional cotton than in those made of organic cotton, with a significant difference for BPS (1.24 vs. 0.76 ng/g, p < 0.05). Although toddlers have a larger skin-area-to-body-weight ratio, pregnant women showed higher exposure to BPs than children. Anyhow, the non-carcinogenic risks associated with BPA exposure were below the unity, even under the upper-bound scenario. However, risks could be underestimated because other exposure routes were not considered in this study. The use of BPA has been restricted in some food-related products; therefore, BPA should also be regulated in the textile industry.