The contribution of fermentative bacteria and methanogenic archaea to azo dye reduction by a thermophilic anaerobic consortium

Harnessing iron materials for enhanced decolorization of azo dye wastewater: A comprehensive review

Highly colored azo dye-contaminated wastewater poses significant environmental threats and requires effective treatment before discharge. The anaerobic azo dye treatment method is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution, while its time-consuming and inefficient processes present substantial challenges for industrial scaling. Thus, the use of iron materials presents a promising alternative. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that systems coupled with iron materials enhance the decolorization efficiency and reduce the processing time. To fully realize the potential of iron materials for anaerobic azo dye treatment, a comprehensive synthesis and evaluation based on individual-related research studies, which have not been conducted to date, are necessary. This review provides, for the first time, an extensive and detailed overview of the utilization of iron materials for azo dye treatment, with a focus on decolorization. It assesses the treatment potential, analyzes the influencing factors and their impacts, and proposes metabolic pathways to enhance anaerobic dye treatment using iron materials. The physicochemical characteristics of iron materials are also discussed to elucidate the mechanisms behind the enhanced bioreduction of azo dyes. This study further addresses the current obstacles and outlines future prospects for industrial-scale application of iron-coupled treatment systems.

Progress and prospects of applying carbon-based materials (and nanomaterials) to accelerate anaerobic bioprocesses for the removal of micropollutants

Carbon-based materials (CBM), including activated carbon (AC), activated fibres (ACF), biochar (BC), nanotubes (CNT), carbon xenogels (CX) and graphene nanosheets (GNS), possess unique properties such as high surface area, sorption and catalytic characteristics, making them very versatile for many applications in environmental remediation. They are powerful redox mediators (RM) in anaerobic processes, accelerating the rates and extending the level of the reduction of pollutants and, consequently, affecting positively the global efficiency of their partial or total removal. The extraordinary conductive properties of CBM, and the possibility of tailoring their surface to address specific pollutants, make them promising as catalysts in the treatment of effluents containing diverse pollutants. CBM can be combined with magnetic nanoparticles (MNM) assembling catalytic and magnetic properties in a single composite (C@MNM), allowing their recovery and reuse after the treatment process. Furthermore, these composites have demonstrated extraordinary catalytic properties. Evaluation of the toxicological and environmental impact of direct and indirect exposure to nanomaterials is an important issue that must be considered when nanomaterials are applied. Though the chemical composition, size and physical characteristics may contribute to toxicological effects, the potential toxic impact of using CBM is not completely clear and is not always assessed. This review gives an overview of the current research on the application of CBM and C@MNM in bioremediation and on the possible environmental impact and toxicity.

Multifaceted synergistic electron transfer mechanism for enhancing denitrification by clay minerals

The performance and mechanism of denitrification enhanced by three clay minerals, montmorillonite (Mmt), illite and kaolinite, were first studied. Batch experiments indicated that clay minerals significantly enhanced denitrification at certain concentrations (0.1-1 g/L). The denitrification rate with 1 g/L Mmt was increased by 5.0-fold. The mechanism of clay minerals promoting denitrification was analyzed from three aspects: electron transfer characteristics, interfacial interaction and metabolism activity. Electrochemical tests showed that the clay minerals promoted electron transfer rate by improving current efficiency and electronic accommodation capacity. The biofilm formation on the clay minerals interface indicated that micro-domain catalytic phases were formed, which was beneficial to improve the nitrate reduction rate. In addition, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase activities in Mmt-supplemented system were increased by 283.3%, 128.1% and 126.2%, respectively; and extracellular polymeric substance secretion was enhanced, indicating that the addition of clay minerals promoted microbial metabolic activity. Higher microbial diversity and enrichment of electroactive bacteria were observed in the Mmt-supplemented system. Based on the above exploration, the multifaceted synergistic mechanism was proposed to account for the enhanced denitrification performance on clay minerals. Overall, this study expanded understanding of the roles of clay minerals on denitrification and provided strategies for accelerating the biological transformation process.

Accelerated anaerobic biodecolorization of sulfonated azo dyes by magnetite nanoparticles as potential electron transfer mediators

Anaerobic decolorization of azo dyes has been evidenced to be an economical and effective pretreatment method, but its generally limited by the low decolorization efficiency, especially for biodecolorization sulfonated azo dyes. In this study, magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) as a conductive material, was coupled into anaerobic system for enhancing decolorization of sulfonated azo dyes, i.e., methyl orange (MO), with technology feasibility and system stability emphasized. The results showed that the anaerobic decolorization capacity was significantly enhanced with addition of MNPs (at dose of 1 g/L), where the efficiencies of MO decolorization and aromatic amines formation were as high as 97.28 ± 0.78 % and 99.44 ± 0.25%, respectively. In addition, both electron transport system activity and sludge conductivity were also significantly improved, suggesting that a direct extracellular electron transfer had been successfully established via MNPs as RMs. Under continuous-flow experiments, addition of MNPs not only improved anaerobic system resistance environmental stress (e.g., high MO concentration, low hydraulic retention time and low co-substance concentration) but also accelerated sludge granulation. The relative abundance of functional species related to dissimilatory iron reduction and MO biodegradation were also enriched under MNPs stimulation. The observed long-term stable performance suggests the full-scale application potential of this coupled system for treatment of wastewater containing sulfonated azo dyes.

Two-stage anaerobic process benefits removal for azo dye orange II with starch as primary co-substrate

Two-stage anaerobic system (S1: R1 (acidogenic phase) + R2 (methanogenic phase)) and the one-stage control (S0) were established to investigate the effect of phase separation on the removal of an azo dye orange II, i.e., Acid Orange 7 (AO7), with starch as the primary co-substrate. Although final AO7 removal from two systems showed no statistical differences, the first-order rate constants for AO7 removal (k_AO7-) and sulfanilic acid (SA) formation (k_SA) were higher in S1. Kinetic analysis showed that k_AO7- and k_SA in S1 were 2.7-fold and 1.7-fold of those in S0, respectively, indicating the benefit of phase separation to the AO7 reduction. However, this benefit only appeared in the period with influent AO7 concentrations higher than 2.14 mM. Otherwise, this advantage would be hidden due to the longer HRT (5 d) and sufficient electron donor (1.0 g starch L^-1). Within S1, R1 only contributed about 10% of the entire AO7 removal, and k_AO7- in R1 (0.172 h^-1) was much lower than in R2 (0.503 h^-1). The methanogenic phase rather than acidogenic phase was the main contribution to AO7 removal, because the influent of R2 had more available electron donors and suitable pH condition (pH 6.5-7.0) for the bio-reduction process.

Intermittent aeration strategy for azo dye biodegradation: A suitable alternative to conventional biological treatments?

Most solutions for biological treatment of azo dyes are based on conventional anaerobic-aerobic processes, but transition to full scale demands technology simplification and cost reductions. We suggest a new approach, in which aeration is intermittently supplied for simultaneous removal of color and toxic metabolites in a single compartment. Effects of aeration strategy and glucose concentration on decolorization and organic matter removal were assessed using factorial design (32) and response surface analysis. Bioreactors were inoculated with microorganisms previously acclimated to Direct Black 22 (DB22), which was the azo compound used in this study. Assays performed with synthetic textile wastewater showed that long-term decolorization was not impaired at a moderate level of aeration (4 hourly-cycles per day). Aerated batches presented lower color removal velocities, but these negative impacts were offset by increasing initial glucose concentration. Higher degrees of mineralization of the azo compound and higher organic matter removals were achieved in intermittently aerated experiments, which led to lower toxicity to Daphnia magna. Biomolecular analysis revealed that the microbial community structure was strongly associated with operational efficiency parameters. These findings suggest intermittent aeration can be implemented to accomplish enhanced azo dye biodegradation.

Azo dye biotransformation mediated by AQS immobilized on activated carbon cloth in the presence of microbial inhibitors

In this work, anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQS) was covalently immobilized onto activated carbon cloth (ACC), to be used as redox mediator for the reductive decolorization of reactive red 2 (RR2) by an anaerobic consortium. The immobilization of AQS improved the capacity of ACC to transfer electrons, evidenced by an increment of 3.29-fold in the extent of RR2 decolorization in absence of inhibitors, compared to incubations lacking AQS. Experiments conducted in the presence of vancomycin, an inhibitor of acidogenic bacteria, and with 2-bromoethane sulfonic acid (BES), an inhibitor of methanogenic archaea, revealed that acidogenic bacteria are the main responsible for RR2 biotransformation mediated by immobilized AQS. Nonetheless, the results also suggest that some methanogens are able to maintain their capacity to use immobilized AQS as an electron acceptor to sustain the decolorization process, even in the presence of BES.

Color and nitrogen removal from synthetic dye wastewater in an integrated mesophilic hydrolysis/acidification and multiple anoxic/aerobic process

Dye wastewater is one kind of refractory pollutant and it is commonly treated by the integrated anaerobic and aerobic process. A new integrated hydrolysis/acidification and multiple anoxic/aerobic (AO) process was proposed for the removal of color and nitrogen from azo dye wastewater. System performance, the degradation pathway of azo dye and nitrogen metabolic pathway were investigated with quadrupole-time-of-flight and metagenomic analyses. The proposed process removed color and nitrogen efficiently, with the removal percentages of 89.4% and 54.0%, respectively. A colorful intermediate C₁₆H₁₁N₃O₇S₂ during the degradation of azo dye was detected. Controlling a low dissolved oxygen concentration in the multiple AO process could enhance nitrogen removal. The detected bacteria possessing azoreductase for the azo dye degradation included Desulfovibrio aminophilus, Thermoanaerobacter, Lactococcus raffinolactis, Ruminiclostridium and Rhodopirellula. The nitrifying genes of amo and hao were mainly detected in Nitrosomonas, while the denitrifying genes were detected in Thauera, Candidatus Accumulibacter and Rhodothermus marinus.

Enhanced azo dye Reactive Red 2 degradation in anaerobic reactors by dosing conductive material of ferroferric oxide

Effect of dosing ferroferric oxide (Fe₃O₄) on the anaerobic treatment of azo dye Reactive Red 2 (RR2) was investigated in two anaerobic sequencing batch reactors (ASBRs). System performance, dye degradation pathways, and microbial activities and structure were examined. The addition of Fe₃O₄ significantly improved treatment efficiency, with the removal efficiency of RR2 increased by 116%, the maximum methane (CH₄) yield potential and the peak CH₄ production rate improved by 7.7% and 22.3%, and the lag phase shortened by 39.6%, respectively. The activity of the electron transport system was significantly enhanced by dosing Fe₃O₄, with the maximum value increased by 77% and conductivity of the anaerobic sludge increased by 178%. According to the proposed pathway for the degradation of RR2, the degradation products from complete cleavage of the NN bond in RR2 were obtained at the presence of Fe₃O₄, while were absent without Fe₃O₄. At high initial dye concentrations, the dosage of Fe₃O₄ alleviated the inhibition to microbes by RR2, and high degradation rate and removal efficiency were maintained. The microbial community structure changed during the long-term acclimation with the dosage of Fe₃O₄. Paludibacter, Trichococcus and Methanosarcina were predominant and their relative abundances increased with the addition of Fe₃O₄.

Enrichment of extremophilic exoelectrogens in microbial electrolysis cells using Red Sea brine pools as inocula

Applying microbial electrochemical technologies for the treatment of highly saline or thermophilic solutions is challenging due to the lack of proper inocula to enrich for efficient exoelectrogens. Brine pools from three different locations (Valdivia, Atlantis II and Kebrit) in the Red Sea were investigated as potential inocula sources for enriching exoelectrogens in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) under thermophilic (70°C) and hypersaline (25% salinity) conditions. Of these, only the Valdivia brine pool produced high and consistent current 6.8±2.1A/m²-anode in MECs operated at a set anode potential of +0.2V vs. Ag/AgCl (+0.405V vs. standard hydrogen electrode). These results show that exoelectrogens are present in these extreme environments and can be used to startup MEC under thermophilic and hypersaline conditions. Bacteroides was enriched on the anode of the Valdivia MEC, but it was not detected in the open circuit voltage reactor seeded with the Valdivia brine pool.

Tailoring partially reduced graphene oxide as redox mediator for enhanced biotransformation of iopromide under methanogenic and sulfate-reducing conditions

This work reports the first successful application of graphene oxide (GO) and partially reduced GO (rGO) as redox mediator (RM) to increase the biotransformation of the recalcitrant iodinated contrast medium, iopromide (IOP). Results showed that GO-based materials promoted up to 5.5 and 2.8-fold faster biotransformation of IOP by anaerobic sludge under methanogenic and sulfate-reducing conditions, respectively. Correlation between the extent of reduction of GO and its redox-mediating capacity was demonstrated, which was reflected in faster removal and greater extent of biotransformation of IOP. Further analysis indicated that the biotransformation pathway of IOP involved multiple reactions including deiodination, decarboxylation, demethylation, dehydration and N-dealkylation. GO-based materials could be strategically tailored and integrated in biological treatment systems to effectively enhance the redox conversion of recalcitrant pollutants commonly found in wastewater treatment systems and industrial effluents.

Exploring the potential of anaerobic sulfate reduction process in treating sulfonated diazo dye: Microbial community analysis using bar-coded pyrosequencing

Anaerobic decolorization and biotransformation of azo dye was investigated in a sulfate-reducing environment. Batch reactor studies were performed with mixed cultures of anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) enriched from anaerobic digester sludge. Complete sulfate and color removal were achieved in batch experiments with different initial dye concentrations (50-2500mg/L) and 1000mg/L of sulfate. Induction of various oxidoreductive enzyme activities such as phenol oxidase, veratryl alcohol oxidase, lignin peroxidase, and azo reductase was studied to understand their involvement in dye metabolism under anoxic environment. The degradation of Cotton Red B was confirmed using high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Sulfidogenic sludge demonstrated excellent dye degradation and mineralization ability, producing aniline and 1,4-diamino benzene as metabolites. A barcoded 16S rRNA gene-pyrosequencing approach was used to assess the bacterial diversity in the sludge culture and a phylogenetic tree was constructed for sulfate-reducing bacteria.

Inhibitory effect and mechanism of azo dyes on anaerobic methanogenic wastewater treatment: Can redox mediator remediate the inhibition?

Inhibitory effect of azo dyes on anaerobic methanogenic wastewater treatment (AMWT) has been studied mainly focusing on biological toxicity in the batch test with simulated sole co-substrate. Detailed information on inhibitory effect and mechanism of azo dyes during the long-term operation with real complex co-substrate is limited. Moreover, whether redox mediator (RM) could remediate the inhibition is still unclear in previous studies, especially under the complex scenario. In this study, the real textile wastewater with alternative concentrations of azo dyes (0-600 mg/L) were used to operate a lab-scale high-rate anaerobic methanogenic bioreactor for 127 days, and 50 μM anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQS) as RM was added at the last period of operation. Azo dyes with concentration of 600 mg/L could cause significant inhibition on overall (decolorizing and methanogenic) performance of AMWT. Specific methanogenic activity assays showed that acetoclastic methanogens was more susceptible to high concentration azo dyes than hydrogenotrophic methanogens. The spatial distribution of extracellular polymeric substance in the anaerobic granular sludge (AGS) showed that the high biological toxicity of azo dyes was mainly attributed to enrichment effect in tightly bound-EPS (TB-EPS). The channels of AGS was clogged by azo dyes, which was evidenced by the hard release of aromatic amines in EPSs as well as decreased porosity of AGS and scanning electron microscope images. Meanwhile, the settling ability, particle size and strength of AGS all deteriorated after azo dyes concentration exceeded 450 mg/L. The dosing of AQS could mostly remediate overall performance of the bioreactor even if the recovery of acetoclastic methanogens was slow. However, except for the porosity with a part of recovery, physical characteristics of AGS hardly recovered, and washout of sludge from the bioreactor was still happening. It suggested that additional attention should be paid to prevent sludge from washout if RM was practically used to remediate the anaerobic reactor inhibited by azo dyes.

A highly efficient single chambered up-flow membrane-less microbial fuel cell for treatment of azo dye Acid Orange 7-containing wastewater

Single chambered up-flow membrane-less microbial fuel cell (UFML MFC) was developed to study the feasibility of the bioreactor for decolorization of Acid Orange 7 (AO7) and electricity generation simultaneously. The performance of UFML MFC was evaluated in terms of voltage output, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and color removal efficiency by varying the concentration of AO7 in synthetic wastewater. The results shown the voltage generation and COD removal efficiency decreased as the initial AO7 concentration increased; this indicates there is electron competition between anode and azo dye. Furthermore, there was a phenomenon of further decolorization at cathode region which indicates the oxygen and azo dye are both compete as electron acceptor. Based on the UV-visible spectra analysis, the breakdown of the azo bond and naphthalene compound in AO7 were confirmed. These findings show the capability of integrated UFML MFC in azo dye wastewater treatment and simultaneous electricity generation.

Graphene oxide as electron shuttle for increased redox conversion of contaminants under methanogenic and sulfate-reducing conditions

Graphene oxide (GO) is reported for the first time as electron shuttle to increase the redox conversion of the azo compound, reactive red 2 (RR2, 0.5mM), and the nitroaromatic, 3-chloronitrobenzene (3CNB, 0.5mM). GO (5mgL(-1)) increased 10-fold and 7.6-fold the reduction rate of RR2 and 3CNB, respectively, in abiotic incubations with sulfide (2.6mM) as electron donor. GO also increased by 2-fold and 3.6-fold, the microbial reduction rate of RR2 by anaerobic sludge under methanogenic and sulfate-reducing conditions, respectively. Deep characterization of GO showed that it has a proper size distribution (predominantly between 450 and 700nm) and redox potential (+50.8mV) to promote the reduction of RR2 and 3CNB. Further analysis revealed that biogenic sulfide plays a major role on the GO-mediated reduction of RR2. GO is proposed as an electron shuttle to accelerate the redox conversion of recalcitrant pollutants, such as nitro-benzenes and azo dyes.

Biotransformative removal of cationic Red X-GRL by anaerobic activated sludge

Azo dye was completely decolorized and degraded to methane and ammonia by bacteria and archaea under anaerobic conditions.

Enhanced decolorization of azo dye in a small pilot-scale anaerobic baffled reactor coupled with biocatalyzed electrolysis system (ABR-BES): a design suitable for scaling-up

A four-compartment anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) incorporated with membrane-less biocatalyzed electrolysis system (BES) was tested for the treatment of azo dye (alizarin yellow R, AYR) wastewater (AYR, 200 mg L(-1); glucose, 1000 mg L(-1)). The ABR-BES was operated without and with external power supply to examine AYR reduction process and reductive intermediates with different external voltages (0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 V) and hydraulic retention times (HRT: 8, 6 and 4h). The decolorization efficiency in the ABR-BES (8h HRT, 0.5 V) was higher than that in ABR-BES without electrolysis, i.e. 95.1 ± 1.5% versus 86.9 ± 6.3%. Incorporation of BES with ABR accelerated the consumption of VFAs (mainly acetate) and attenuated biogas (methane) production. Higher power supply (0.7 V) enhanced AYR decolorization efficiency (96.4 ± 1.8%), VFAs removal, and current density (24.1 Am(-3) TCV). Shorter HRT increased volumetric AYR decolorization rates, but decreased AYR decolorization efficiency.

Reductive decolourisation of sulphonated mono and diazo dyes in one- and two-stage anaerobic systems

This work assessed the application of one- and two-stage mesophilic anaerobic systems to colour removal of sulphonated mono and diazo dyes with ethanol as electron donor. The dyes Congo Red (CR), Reactive Black 5 (RB5) and Reactive Red 2 (RR2) were selected as model compounds and tested separately in seven different periods. The one-stage system (R(1)) consisted of a single up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor, whereas the two-stage system (R(2)) consisted of an acidogenic UASB reactor (R(A)), a settler and a methanogenic UASB reactor (R(M)). For CR and RB5, no remarkable difference was observed between the colour removal performance of both anaerobic systems R(1) and R(2). The experiments with RR2 revealed that R(2) was more efficient on colour removal than R(1), showing efficiencies almost 2-fold (period VI) and 2.5-fold (period VII) higher than those found by R(1). Additionally, R(2) showed a higher stability, giving a good prospect for application to textile wastewaters. Finally, the acidogenic reactor (R(A)) had an important role in the overall decolourisation achieved by R(2) during the experiments with CR and RB5 (>78 %), whereas for RR2, a more recalcitrant dye, R(A) was responsible for up to 38 % of the total colour removal.

Decolorization of azo dye reactive black B by Bacillus cereus strain HJ-1

Reactive black B (RBB) is a group of azo dyes that are widely used in the textile industry. In this study, a new microbial strain was isolated from azo dye contaminated river sediment which is capable of degrading RBB. The strain was identified as Bacillus cereus strain HJ-1 by 16S rRNA gene sequences analysis. The optimal conditions for RBB decolorization by B. cereus strain HJ-1 are: 25°C, pH 8, 1 CMC of triton X-100, 0.15 g L(-1) of added yeast extract, 0.125 g L(-1) of added glucose and static culture. Then the toxicity of RBB on the green algae Chlorella vulgaris was determined. The results showed that the median effective concentration (EC(50)) of RBB for C. vulgaris is 48 mg L(-1) and toxicity will really decrease after decolorization. In the end, B. cereus strain HJ-1 was amended into the origin river sediment and analyzed the whole microbial community structure of river sediment samples by PCR-DGGE technique. The result showed that B. cereus strain HJ-1 could survive in the river sediment after 12 d of incubation. Based on this work, we hope that these findings could provide some useful information for applying the decolorization of RBB in our environment.

Impact of the redox mediator sodium anthraquinone-2,6-disulphonate (AQDS) on the reductive decolourisation of the azo dye Reactive Red 2 (RR2) in one- and two-stage anaerobic systems

This work assessed the impact of the redox mediator sodium anthraquinone-2,6-disulphonate (AQDS) on the reductive decolourisation of the azo dye Reactive Red 2 (RR2) in one- and two-stage anaerobic systems (R(1) and R(2), respectively). The two-stage system achieved better colour removal efficiencies (52-62%) than the single-stage system (23-33%) in the absence of AQDS. Addition of AQDS accelerated the electrons transfer from the substrate (ethanol) to the dye, which increased the colour removal efficiency of both anaerobic systems (≈ 85%). Finally, the impact of acidogenic and methanogenic phases separation was masked by AQDS supplementation.

Enhanced azo dye wastewater treatment in a two-stage anaerobic system with Fe0 dosing

Azo dye wastewater treatment was enhanced in an acidogenic reactor (A1) by Fe(0) dosing. Both COD (50%) and color (60%) removal in A1 were stable when the dye concentrations were increased from 200 to 800 mg/L. However, the performances of a Fe(0)-free control reactor (A2) showed low COD (34%) and color (32%) removals. The reason was attributed that Fe(0) dosing enhanced the activity of fermentative bacteria, which played an important role in acidogenesis and decolorization. The methanogenic reactor fed with the effluent of A1 exhibited higher removal efficiency and treatment stability. These results suggested that Fe(0) powder dosing was helpful to improve acidogenesis and decolorization to create a favorable feeding condition for the subsequent methanogenic treatment.

Performance and microbial diversity of microbial fuel cells coupled with different cathode types during simultaneous azo dye decolorization and electricity generation

To study the effect of cathode type on performance and microbial diversity of the MFC, aerobic biocathode and air-cathode were incorporated into microbial fuel cells (MFCs) which were explored for simultaneous azo dye decolorization and electricity generation. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results demonstrated that the catalytic activity of the microorganisms on the biocathode surface was comparable with that of the platinum coated on the air-cathode. The power density achieved by using biocathode was lower than air-cathode, but the biocathode could greatly improve the Congo red decolorization rate. By using the biocathode, 96.4% decolorization of Congo red was obtained within 29 h, whereas, about 107 h was required to achieve the same decolorization efficiency with the air-cathode. 16S rRNA sequencing analysis demonstrated a phylogenetic diversity in the communities of the anode biofilm and showed clear differences between the anode-attached populations in the MFCs with a different cathode type.

Steady performance of a zero valent iron packed anaerobic reactor for azo dye wastewater treatment under variable influent quality

Zero valent iron (ZVI) is expected to help create an enhanced anaerobic environment that might improve the performance of anaerobic treatment. Based on this idea, a novel ZVI packed upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (ZVI-UASB) reactor was developed to treat azo dye wastewater with variable influent quality. The results showed that the reactor was less influenced by increases of Reactive Brilliant Red X-3B concentration from 50 to 1000 mg/L and chemical oxygen demand (COD) from 1000 to 7000 mg/L in the feed than a reference UASB reactor without the ZVI. The ZVI decreased oxidation-reduction potential in the reactor by about 80 mV. Iron ion dissolution from the ZVI could buffer acidity in the reactor, the amount of which was related to the COD concentration. Fluorescence in situ hybridization test showed the abundance of methanogens in the sludge of the ZVI-UASB reactor was significantly greater than that of the reference one. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis showed that the ZVI increased the diversity of microbial strains responsible for high efficiency.

Simultaneous Congo red decolorization and electricity generation in air-cathode single-chamber microbial fuel cell with different microfiltration, ultrafiltration and proton exchange membranes

Different microfiltration membrane (MFM), proton exchange membrane (PEM) and ultrafiltration membranes (UFMs) with different molecular cutoff weights of 1K (UFM-1K), 5K (UFM-5K) and 10K (UFM-10K) were incorporated into air-cathode single-chamber microbial fuel cells (MFCs) which were explored for simultaneous azo dye decolorization and electricity generation to investigate the effect of membrane on the performance of the MFC. Batch test results showed that the MFC with an UFM-1K produced the highest power density of 324 mW/m(2) coupled with an enhanced coulombic efficiency compared to MFM. The MFC with UMF-10K achieved the fastest decolorization rate (4.77 mg/L h), followed by MFM (3.61 mg/L h), UFM-5K (2.38 mg/L h), UFM-1K (2.02 mg/Lh) and PEM (1.72 mg/Lh). These results demonstrated the possibility of using various membranes in the system described here, and showed that UFM-1K was the best one based on the consideration of both cost and performance.

Effects of an electric field and zero valent iron on anaerobic treatment of azo dye wastewater and microbial community structures

A zero valent iron (ZVI) bed with a pair of electrodes was packed in an anaerobic reactor aiming at enhancing treatment of azo dye wastewater. The experiments were carried out in three reactors operated in parallel: an electric field enhanced ZVI-anaerobic reactor (R1), a ZVI-anaerobic reactor (R2) and a common anaerobic reactor (R3). R1 presented the highest performance in removal of COD and color. Raising voltage in R1 further improved its performance. Scanning electron microscopy images displayed that the structure of granular sludge from R1 was intact after being fed with the high dye concentration, while that of R3 was broken. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis indicated that the abundance of methanogens in R1 was significantly greater than that in the other two reactors. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis showed that the coupling of electric field and ZVI increased the diversity of microbial community and especially enhanced bacterial strains responsible for decolorization.

Decolorization of dye Reactive Black 5 by newly isolated thermophilic microorganisms from geothermal sites in Galicia (Spain)

In this study, thermophilic microbial strains from thermal spots in northwestern Spain displaying excellent decolorization capability were isolated. The research work tackled: (i) the ability of consortia to degrade a model di-azo dye Reactive Black at different pHs in flask cultures, obtaining that just neutral pHs licensed degradation levels near to 70%, (ii) the isolation of tree of the bacteria, which rendered possible reaching high levels of decolorization (80%) after just 24 h in aerobic conditions, and which were identified through 16S rRNA sequencing to possess high homology (99%) with Anoxybacillus pushchinoensis, Anoxybacillus kamchatkensis and Anoxybacillus flavithermus, and (iii) the cultivation of the isolates in a bench-scale bioreactor, which led to a decolorization rate two-fold higher than that obtained in flask cultures. Therefore, this work makes up the first time that a decolorization process of an azo dye by thermophilic microorganisms in aerobic conditions is investigated.

Colour removal of dyes from synthetic and real textile wastewaters in one- and two-stage anaerobic systems

Decolourisation of the azo dye model compound, Congo Red (CR), and real textile wastewater, was assessed in one- and two-stage anaerobic treatment systems (R₁ and R₂, respectively). High colour removals were achieved in both treatment systems even when a very high CR concentration (1.2 mM) was applied. However, R₂ presented a slightly better stability, in which the acidogenic reactor (R(2,A)) played a major role on dye reduction, as compared to the methanogenic reactor (R(2,M)), evidencing the role of fermentative microorganisms. The minimum electron donor concentration required to sustain dye reduction was much higher than the stoichiometric amount. Additionally, a decrease on the hydraulic retention time (from 24 to 12 h) did not significantly affect decolourisation, indicating that electron transfer was not a concern. Finally, experiments with real textile wastewater showed low decolourisation efficiencies in both systems, most likely due to the presence of dyes not susceptible to reductive decolourisation under these experimental conditions.

Behaviour of different anaerobic populations on the biodegradation of textile chemicals

The anaerobic biodegradation of textile chemicals was evaluated with inocula grown under mesophilic (37+/-2 degrees C) or thermophilic (55+/-2 degrees C) conditions, on glucose (glucose-grown) or acetate (acetate-grown) as sole carbon sources. Wool dyebath chemicals (acetic acid, a liposomal surfactant, a synthetic amphoteric surfactant), single or as binary acetate-surfactant mixtures, were used as test carbon sources, in the presence or absence of Acid Orange 7 as model dye. First, the two mesophilic inocula (glucose- or acetate-grown) were compared relatively to lag-phase durations, specific biogas production rates, biogas yields and overall COD removal yields. In some runs, sulphide and/or the model dye were included, to test for inhibition effects. Then, the two glucose-grown inocula (mesophilic and thermophilic) were assessed in batch biodegradation tests with the same carbon feeds. The kinetics for substrate-COD and dye colour removal were described and quantified using a pseudo-first order model. The presence of dye had no effect on performance parameters for all substrates tested. Acetoclastic methanogens seemingly played an important role in biogas production from the liposomal additive, but less so from the synthetic surfactant. The association of acetate and surfactants apparently introduced mutual inhibitory effects on the rates of biogas production, substrate uptake and dye decolourisation.

Simultaneous decolorization of azo dye and bioelectricity generation using a microfiltration membrane air-cathode single-chamber microbial fuel cell

Electricity generation from readily biodegradable organic substrates accompanied by decolorization of azo dye was investigated using a microfiltration membrane air-cathode single-chamber microbial fuel cell (MFC). Batch experiment results showed that accelerated decolorization of active brilliant red X-3B (ABRX3) was achieved in the MFC as compared to traditional anaerobic technology. Biodegradation was the dominant mechanism of the dye removal, and glucose was the optimal co-substrate for ABRX3 decolorization, while acetate was the worst one. Confectionery wastewater (CW) was also shown to be a good co-substrate for ABRX3 decolorization and a cheap fuel source for electricity generation in the MFC. Low resistance was more favorable for dye decolorization than high resistance. Suspended sludge (SS) should be retained in the MFC for accelerated decolorization of ABRX3. Electricity generation was not significantly affected by the ABRX3 at 300 mg/L, while higher concentrations inhibited electricity generation. However, voltage can be recovered to the original level after replacement with anodic medium not containing azo dye.

Degradation of immobilized azo dyes by Klebsiella sp. UAP-b5 isolated from maize bioadsorbent

The degradation of two immobilized dyes by Klebsiella sp. UAP-b5 was studied. In batch experiments, the azo dyestuffs Basic Blue 41 and Reactive Black 5 were immobilized onto corn cobs by adsorption, and the adsorption process was characterized by a pseudo-second-order kinetic equation. Klebsiella sp. UAP-b5 was previously isolated from the corn waste and shown to decolorize these dyes in liquid systems. Here, we demonstrate anaerobic decolorization and reductive biodegradation of these dyes by means of spectrophotometry, HPLC, and IR spectroscopy of the solid waste and desorption solutions. We also demonstrate adsorption of compounds that resemble known degradation products.

Impact and application of electron shuttles on the redox (bio)transformation of contaminants: a review

During the last two decades, extensive research has explored the catalytic effects of different organic molecules with redox mediating properties on the anaerobic (bio)transformation of a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds. The accumulated evidence points at a major role of electron shuttles in the redox conversion of several distinct contaminants, both by chemical and biological mechanisms. Many microorganisms are capable of reducing redox mediators linked to the anaerobic oxidation of organic and inorganic substrates. Electron shuttles can also be chemically reduced by electron donors commonly found in anaerobic environments (e.g. sulfide and ferrous iron). Reduced electron shuttles can transfer electrons to several distinct electron-withdrawing compounds, such as azo dyes, polyhalogenated compounds, nitroaromatics and oxidized metalloids, among others. Moreover, reduced molecules with redox properties can support the microbial reduction of electron acceptors, such as nitrate, arsenate and perchlorate. The aim of this review paper is to summarize the results of reductive (bio)transformation processes catalyzed by electron shuttles and to indicate which aspects should be further investigated to enhance the applicability of redox mediators on the (bio)transformation of contaminants.

Biodecolorization of the azo dye Reactive Red 2 by a halotolerant enrichment culture

The decolorization of the azo dye Reactive Red 2 (RR2) under anoxic conditions was investigated using a mesophilic (35 degrees C) halotolerant enrichment culture capable of growth at 100 g/L sodium chloride (NaCl). Batch decolorization assays were conducted with the unacclimated halotolerant culture, and dye decolorization kinetics were determined as a function of the initial dye, biomass, carbon source, and an externally added oxidation-reduction mediator (anthraquinone-2,6-disulphonic acid) concentrations. The maximum biomass-normalized RR2 decolorization rate by the halotolerant enrichment culture under batch, anoxic incubation conditions was 26.8 mg dye/mg VSSxd. Although RR2 decolorization was inhibited at RR2 concentrations equal to and higher than 300 mg/L, the halotolerant culture achieved a 156-fold higher RR2 decolorization rate compared with a previously reported, biomass-normalized RR2 decolorization rate by a mixed mesophilic (35 degrees C) methanogenic culture in the absence of NaCl. Decolorization kinetics at inhibitory RR2 levels were described based on the Haldane model (Haldane, 1965). Five repetitive dyeing/decolorization cycles performed using the halotolerant culture and the same RR2 dyebath solution demonstrated the feasibility of biological renovation and reuse of commercial-strength spent reactive azo dyebaths.

Review paper on current technologies for decolourisation of textile wastewaters: perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology

Dyes are natural and xenobiotic compounds that make the world more beautiful through coloured substances. However, the release of coloured wastewaters represents a serious environmental problem and a public health concern. Colour removal, especially from textile wastewaters, has been a big challenge over the last decades, and up to now there is no single and economically attractive treatment that can effectively decolourise dyes. In the passed years, notable achievements were made in the use of biotechnological applications to textile wastewaters not only for colour removal but also for the complete mineralization of dyes. Different microorganisms such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes have been found to catalyse dye decolourisation. Moreover, promising results were obtained in accelerating dye decolourisation by adding mediating compounds and/or changing process conditions to high temperatures. This paper provides a critical review on the current technologies available for decolourisation of textile wastewaters and it suggests effective and economically attractive alternatives.

Biogenic sulphide plays a major role on the riboflavin-mediated decolourisation of azo dyes under sulphate-reducing conditions

The effect of high concentrations of sulphate on the reductive decolourisation of different azo dyes by anaerobic sludge was studied in batch cultures. Sludge cultures were pre-incubated under sulphate-reducing conditions prior addition of dyes. Little or no effects of sulphate (5-10 g sulphate l(-1)) on the rate of decolourisation of Reactive Orange 14 (RO14), Direct Blue 53 (DB53) and Direct Blue 71 (DB71) were observed when no external redox mediator was provided. However, an increase in sulphate concentration, in the presence of riboflavin (20 microM), enhanced the decolourisation of all dyes. The first-rate constant of decolourisation (k) was increased up to 2-, 3.6- and 2-fold for RO14, DB53 and DB71, respectively, by supplying high sulphate concentrations, compared to the controls lacking sulphate, in the presence of the redox mediator. Sulphate reduction did not take place during the course of azo reductions, but was only evident before dye addition and after complete decolourisation, suggesting azo dyes reduction out-competed sulphate reduction for the available reducing equivalents. The experimental data suggest that reduction of azo dyes by riboflavin, which had been reduced by biogenic sulphide, was the major mechanism implicated during decolourisations, which was corroborated by abiotic incubations. Riboflavin greatly accelerated the abiotic reduction of RO14, so that the k value was increased up to 44-fold compared to the control lacking riboflavin.