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Ornitz DM, Itoh N. New developments in the biology of fibroblast growth factors. WIREs Mech Dis 2022; 14:e1549. [PMID: 35142107 PMCID: PMC10115509 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family is composed of 18 secreted signaling proteins consisting of canonical FGFs and endocrine FGFs that activate four receptor tyrosine kinases (FGFRs 1-4) and four intracellular proteins (intracellular FGFs or iFGFs) that primarily function to regulate the activity of voltage-gated sodium channels and other molecules. The canonical FGFs, endocrine FGFs, and iFGFs have been reviewed extensively by us and others. In this review, we briefly summarize past reviews and then focus on new developments in the FGF field since our last review in 2015. Some of the highlights in the past 6 years include the use of optogenetic tools, viral vectors, and inducible transgenes to experimentally modulate FGF signaling, the clinical use of small molecule FGFR inhibitors, an expanded understanding of endocrine FGF signaling, functions for FGF signaling in stem cell pluripotency and differentiation, roles for FGF signaling in tissue homeostasis and regeneration, a continuing elaboration of mechanisms of FGF signaling in development, and an expanding appreciation of roles for FGF signaling in neuropsychiatric diseases. This article is categorized under: Cardiovascular Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Congenital Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Cancer > Stem Cells and Development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Nobuyuki Itoh
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
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Klimaschewski L, Claus P. Fibroblast Growth Factor Signalling in the Diseased Nervous System. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:3884-3902. [PMID: 33860438 PMCID: PMC8280051 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02367-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) act as key signalling molecules in brain development, maintenance, and repair. They influence the intricate relationship between myelinating cells and axons as well as the association of astrocytic and microglial processes with neuronal perikarya and synapses. Advances in molecular genetics and imaging techniques have allowed novel insights into FGF signalling in recent years. Conditional mouse mutants have revealed the functional significance of neuronal and glial FGF receptors, not only in tissue protection, axon regeneration, and glial proliferation but also in instant behavioural changes. This review provides a summary of recent findings regarding the role of FGFs and their receptors in the nervous system and in the pathogenesis of major neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Klimaschewski
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Peter Claus
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and Cell Biology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
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Cytokine and Growth Factor Activation In Vivo and In Vitro after Spinal Cord Injury. Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:9476020. [PMID: 27418745 PMCID: PMC4935915 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9476020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury results in a life-disrupting series of deleterious interconnected mechanisms encompassed by the primary and secondary injury. These events are mediated by the upregulation of genes with roles in inflammation, transcription, and signaling proteins. In particular, cytokines and growth factors are signaling proteins that have important roles in the pathophysiology of SCI. The balance between the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects of these molecules plays a critical role in the progression and outcome of the lesion. The excessive inflammatory Th1 and Th17 phenotypes observed after SCI tilt the scale towards a proinflammatory environment, which exacerbates the deleterious mechanisms present after the injury. These mechanisms include the disruption of the spinal cord blood barrier, edema and ion imbalance, in particular intracellular calcium and sodium concentrations, glutamate excitotoxicity, free radicals, and the inflammatory response contributing to the neurodegenerative process which is characterized by demyelination and apoptosis of neuronal tissue.
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Weber T, Renzland I, Baur M, Mönks S, Herrmann E, Huppert V, Nürnberg F, Schönig K, Bartsch D. Tetracycline inducible gene manipulation in serotonergic neurons. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38193. [PMID: 22693598 PMCID: PMC3364967 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The serotonergic (5-HT) neuronal system has important and diverse physiological functions throughout development and adulthood. Its dysregulation during development or later in adulthood has been implicated in many neuropsychiatric disorders. Transgenic animal models designed to study the contribution of serotonergic susceptibility genes to a pathological phenotype should ideally allow to study candidate gene overexpression or gene knockout selectively in serotonergic neurons at any desired time during life. For this purpose, conditional expression systems such as the tet-system are preferable. Here, we generated a transactivator (tTA) mouse line (TPH2-tTA) that allows temporal and spatial control of tetracycline (Ptet) controlled transgene expression as well as gene deletion in 5-HT neurons. The tTA cDNA was inserted into a 196 kb PAC containing a genomic mouse Tph2 fragment (177 kb) by homologous recombination in E. coli. For functional analysis of Ptet-controlled transgene expression, TPH2-tTA mice were crossed to a Ptet-regulated lacZ reporter line (Ptet-nLacZ). In adult double-transgenic TPH2-tTA/Ptet-nLacZ mice, TPH2-tTA founder line L62-20 showed strong serotonergic β-galactosidase expression which could be completely suppressed with doxycycline (Dox). Furthermore, Ptet-regulated gene expression could be reversibly activated or inactivated when Dox was either withdrawn or added to the system. For functional analysis of Ptet-controlled, Cre-mediated gene deletion, TPH2-tTA mice (L62-20) were crossed to double transgenic Ptet-Cre/R26R reporter mice to generate TPH2-tTA/Ptet-Cre/R26R mice. Without Dox, 5-HT specific recombination started at E12.5. With permanent Dox administration, Ptet-controlled Cre-mediated recombination was absent. Dox withdrawal either postnatally or during adulthood induced efficient recombination in serotonergic neurons of all raphe nuclei, respectively. In the enteric nervous system, recombination could not be detected. We generated a transgenic mouse tTA line (TPH2-tTA) which allows both inducible and reversible transgene expression and inducible Cre-mediated gene deletion selectively in 5-HT neurons throughout life. This will allow precise delineation of serotonergic gene functions during development and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tillmann Weber
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Addictive Behavior and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Insa Renzland
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Max Baur
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Simon Mönks
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Elke Herrmann
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Verena Huppert
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Frank Nürnberg
- Institute for Applied Mathematics, Faculty for Informatics, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kai Schönig
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Dusan Bartsch
- Department of Molecular Biology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Yip PK, Malaspina A. Spinal cord trauma and the molecular point of no return. Mol Neurodegener 2012; 7:6. [PMID: 22315999 PMCID: PMC3299607 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-7-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A mechanical trauma to the spinal cord can be followed by the development of irreversible and progressive neurodegeneration, as opposed to a temporary or partially reversible neurological damage. An increasing body of experimental and clinical evidence from humans and animal models indicates that spinal cord injury may set in motion the development of disabling and at times fatal neuromuscular disorders, whose occurrence is not normally associated with any major environmental event. This outcome appears to be dependent on the co-occurrence of a particular form of mechanical stress and of a genetically-determined vulnerability. This increased vulnerability to spinal cord injury may depend on a change of the nature and of the timing of activation of a number of neuroprotective and neurodestructive molecular signals in the injured cord. Among the main determinants, we could mention an altered homeostasis of lipids and neurofilaments, an earlier inflammatory response and the failure of the damaged tissue to rein in oxidative damage and apoptotic cell death. These changes could force injured tissue beyond a point of no return and precipitate an irreversible neurodegenerative process. A better knowledge of the molecular signals activated in a state of increased vulnerability to trauma can inform future treatment strategies and the prediction of the neurological outcome after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping K Yip
- Centre for Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, UK.
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Hochmann S, Kaslin J, Hans S, Weber A, Machate A, Geffarth M, Funk RHW, Brand M. Fgf signaling is required for photoreceptor maintenance in the adult zebrafish retina. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30365. [PMID: 22291943 PMCID: PMC3266925 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (Fgf) are secreted signaling molecules that have mitogenic, patterning, neurotrophic and angiogenic properties. Their importance during embryonic development in patterning and morphogenesis of the vertebrate eye is well known, but less is known about the role of Fgfs in the adult vertebrate retina. To address Fgf function in adult retina, we determined the spatial distribution of components of the Fgf signaling pathway in the adult zebrafish retina. We detected differential expression of Fgf receptors, ligands and downstream Fgf targets within specific retinal layers. Furthermore, we blocked Fgf signaling in the retina, by expressing a dominant negative variant of Fgf receptor 1 conditionally in transgenic animals. After blocking Fgf signaling we observe a fast and progressive photoreceptor degeneration and disorganization of retinal tissue, coupled with cell death in the outer nuclear layer. Following the degeneration of photoreceptors, a profound regeneration response is triggered that starts with proliferation in the inner nuclear layer. Ultimately, rod and cone photoreceptors are regenerated completely. Our study reveals the requirement of Fgf signaling to maintain photoreceptors and for proliferation during regeneration in the adult zebrafish retina.
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MESH Headings
- Age Factors
- Animals
- Animals, Genetically Modified
- Cell Death/genetics
- Cell Death/physiology
- Cell Survival/genetics
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/genetics
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/metabolism
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/physiology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/metabolism
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/physiology
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1/genetics
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1/metabolism
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/metabolism
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/physiology
- Retina/cytology
- Retina/metabolism
- Retina/physiology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Zebrafish/genetics
- Zebrafish/growth & development
- Zebrafish/metabolism
- Zebrafish/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Hochmann
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jan Kaslin
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Hans
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anke Weber
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anja Machate
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michaela Geffarth
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Richard H. W. Funk
- Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Brand
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Cluster of Excellence (CRTD), Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Yoo KY, Hwang IK, Lee CH, Choi JH, Kwon SH, Kang IJ, You SG, Kim YM, Won MH. Difference of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 expression among CA1-3 regions of the gerbil hippocampus after transient cerebral ischemia. J Neurol Sci 2010; 296:13-21. [PMID: 20621308 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2010.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2010] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors are important regulators of neuronal development. In this study, we observed fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) immunoreactivity and its protein levels in the hippocampus proper (CA1-3 regions) of the gerbil at various time points after ischemia/reperfusion. In the sham-operated group, FGFR1 immunoreaction was not detected in the hippocampus proper. FGFR1 immunoreaction was first detected in non-pyramidal neurons in the CA1-3 region at 12h and 1day after ischemia/reperfusion. From 2days after ischemia/reperfusion, FGFR1 immunoreaction was found in astrocytes, not in microglial cells, in the CA1 region: FGFR1 immunoreactivity and the number of astrocytes were significantly increased at 5days post-ischemia. Western blot analysis revealed that FGFR1 protein levels were also increased from 1day after ischemia/reperfusion. These results indicate that increase of FGFR1 in astrocytes of the ischemic CA1 region may be associated with gliosis followed by delayed neuronal death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Yeon Yoo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, and Institute of Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200-702, Republic of Korea
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Zhu P, Aller MI, Baron U, Cambridge S, Bausen M, Herb J, Sawinski J, Cetin A, Osten P, Nelson ML, Kügler S, Seeburg PH, Sprengel R, Hasan MT. Silencing and un-silencing of tetracycline-controlled genes in neurons. PLoS One 2007; 2:e533. [PMID: 17579707 PMCID: PMC1888723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Accepted: 05/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify the underlying reason for the controversial performance of tetracycline (Tet)-controlled regulated gene expression in mammalian neurons, we investigated each of the three components that comprise the Tet inducible systems, namely tetracyclines as inducers, tetracycline-transactivator (tTA) and reverse tTA (rtTA), and tTA-responsive promoters (Ptets). We have discovered that stably integrated Ptet becomes functionally silenced in the majority of neurons when it is inactive during development. Ptet silencing can be avoided when it is either not integrated in the genome or stably-integrated with basal activity. Moreover, long-term, high transactivator levels in neurons can often overcome integration-induced Ptet gene silencing, possibly by inducing promoter accessibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peixin Zhu
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - M. Isabel Aller
- Department of Clinical Neurobiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Sidney Cambridge
- Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Munich-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Melanie Bausen
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Herb
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Sawinski
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ali Cetin
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Pavel Osten
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mark L. Nelson
- Paratek Pharmaceuticals Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Kügler
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen Medical School, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Rolf Sprengel
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mazahir T. Hasan
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Munich-Martinsried, Germany
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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