Age-related impairment of olfactory bulb neurogenesis in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome

Prenatal treatment with preimplantation factor improves early postnatal neurogenesis and cognitive impairments in a mouse model of Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) is a genetic disease characterized by a supernumerary chromosome 21. Intellectual deficiency (ID) is one of the most prominent features of DS. Central nervous system defects lead to learning disabilities, motor and language delays, and memory impairments. At present, a prenatal treatment for the ID in DS is lacking. Subcutaneous administration of synthetic preimplantation factor (sPIF, a peptide with a range of biological functions) in a model of severe brain damage has shown neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties by directly targeting neurons and microglia. Here, we evaluated the effect of PIF administration during gestation and until weaning on Dp(16)1Yey mice (a mouse model of DS). Possible effects at the juvenile stage were assessed using behavioral tests and molecular and histological analyses of the brain. To test the influence of perinatal sPIF treatment at the adult stage, hippocampus-dependent memory was evaluated on postnatal day 90. Dp(16)1Yey pups showed significant behavioral impairment, with impaired neurogenesis, microglial cell activation and a low microglial cell count, and the deregulated expression of genes linked to neuroinflammation and cell cycle regulation. Treatment with sPIF restored early postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis, with beneficial effects on astrocytes, microglia, inflammation, and cell cycle markers. Moreover, treatment with sPIF restored the level of DYRK1A, a protein that is involved in cognitive impairments in DS. In line with the beneficial effects on neurogenesis, perinatal treatment with sPIF was associated with an improvement in working memory in adult Dp(16)1Yey mice. Perinatal treatment with sPIF might be an option for mitigating cognitive impairments in people with DS.

Deficits in olfactory system neurogenesis in neurodevelopmental disorders

The role of neurogenesis in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) merits much attention. The complex process by which stem cells produce daughter cells that in turn differentiate into neurons, migrate various distances, and form synaptic connections that are then refined by neuronal activity or experience is integral to the development of the nervous system. Given the continued postnatal neurogenesis that occurs in the mammalian olfactory system, it provides an ideal model for understanding how disruptions in distinct stages of neurogenesis contribute to the pathophysiology of various NDDs. This review summarizes and discusses what is currently known about the disruption of neurogenesis within the olfactory system as it pertains to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Rett syndrome. Studies included in this review used either human subjects, mouse models, or Drosophila models, and lay a compelling foundation for continued investigation of NDDs by utilizing the olfactory system.

Ultrasonic vocalization phenotypes in the Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1Yey mouse models of Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) is a developmental disorder associated with a high incidence of challenges in vocal communication. DS can involve medical co-morbidities and structural social factors that may impact communication outcomes, which can present difficulties for the study of vocal communication challenges. Mouse models of DS may be used to study vocal communication differences associated with this syndrome and allow for greater control and consistency of environmental factors. Prior work has demonstrated differences in ultrasonic vocalization (USV) of the Ts65Dn mouse model of DS at a young adult age, however it is not known how USV characteristics are manifested at mature ages. Given that the aging process and age-related co-morbidities may also impact communication in DS, addressing this gap in knowledge may be of value for efforts to understand communication difficulties in DS across the lifespan. The current study hypothesized that the Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1Yey mouse models of DS would demonstrate differences in multiple measures of USV communication at a mature adult age of 5 months.

METHODS

Ts65Dn mice (n = 16) and euploid controls (n = 19), as well as Dp(16)1Yey mice (n = 20) and wild-type controls (n = 22), were evaluated at 5 months of age for USV production using a mating paradigm. Video footage of USV sessions were analyzed to quantify social behaviors of male mice during USV testing sessions. USV recordings were analyzed using Deepsqueak software to identify 10 vocalization types, which were quantified for 11 acoustic measures.

RESULTS

Ts65Dn, but not Dp(16)1Yey, showed significantly lower proportions of USVs classified as Step Up, Short, and Frequency Steps, and significantly higher proportions of USVs classified as Inverted U, than euploid controls. Both Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1Yey groups had significantly greater values for power and tonality for USVs than respective control groups. While Ts65Dn showed lower frequencies than controls, Dp(16)1Yey showed higher frequencies than controls. Finally, Ts65Dn showed reductions in a measure of complexity for some call types. No significant differences between genotype groups were identified in analysis of behaviors during testing sessions.

CONCLUSION

While both Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1Yey show significant differences in USV measures at 5 months of age, of the two models, Ts65Dn shows a relatively greater numbers of differences. Characterization of communication phenotypes in mouse models of DS may be helpful in laying the foundation for future translational advances in the area of communication difficulties associated with DS.

GnRH replacement rescues cognition in Down syndrome

At the present time, no viable treatment exists for cognitive and olfactory deficits in Down syndrome (DS). We show in a DS model (Ts65Dn mice) that these progressive nonreproductive neurological symptoms closely parallel a postpubertal decrease in hypothalamic as well as extrahypothalamic expression of a master molecule that controls reproduction-gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-and appear related to an imbalance in a microRNA-gene network known to regulate GnRH neuron maturation together with altered hippocampal synaptic transmission. Epigenetic, cellular, chemogenetic, and pharmacological interventions that restore physiological GnRH levels abolish olfactory and cognitive defects in Ts65Dn mice, whereas pulsatile GnRH therapy improves cognition and brain connectivity in adult DS patients. GnRH thus plays a crucial role in olfaction and cognition, and pulsatile GnRH therapy holds promise to improve cognitive deficits in DS.

Commensal Microbiota Regulation of Metabolic Networks During Olfactory Dysfunction in Mice

INTRODUCTION

Recently, an increasing number of studies have focused on commensal microbiota. These microorganisms have been suggested to impact human health and disease. However, only a small amount of data exists to support the assessment of the influences that commensal microbiota exert on olfactory function.

METHODS

We used a buried food pellet test (BFPT) to investigate and compare olfactory functions in adult, male, germ-free (GF) and specific-pathogen-free (SPF) mice, then examined and compared the metabolomic profiles for olfactory bulbs (OBs) isolated from GF and SPF mice to uncover the mechanisms associated with olfactory dysfunction.

RESULTS

We found that the absence of commensal microbiota was able to influence olfactory function and the metabolic signatures of OBs, with 38 metabolites presenting significant differences between the two groups. These metabolites were primarily associated with disturbances in glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, amino acid metabolism, and purine catabolism. Finally, the commensal microbiota regulation of metabolic networks during olfactory dysfunction was identified, based on an integrated analysis of metabolite, protein, and mRNA levels.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that the absence of commensal microbiota may impair olfactory function and disrupt metabolic networks. These findings provide a new entry-point for understanding olfactory-associated disorders and their potential underlying mechanisms.

Muscle stem cell dysfunction impairs muscle regeneration in a mouse model of Down syndrome

Down syndrome, caused by trisomy 21, is characterized by a variety of medical conditions including intellectual impairments, cardiovascular defects, blood cell disorders and pre-mature aging phenotypes. Several somatic stem cell populations are dysfunctional in Down syndrome and their deficiencies may contribute to multiple Down syndrome phenotypes. Down syndrome is associated with muscle weakness but skeletal muscle stem cells or satellite cells in Down syndrome have not been investigated. We find that a failure in satellite cell expansion impairs muscle regeneration in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome. Ts65Dn satellite cells accumulate DNA damage and over express Usp16, a histone de-ubiquitinating enzyme that regulates the DNA damage response. Impairment of satellite cell function, which further declines as Ts65Dn mice age, underscores stem cell deficiencies as an important contributor to Down syndrome pathologies.

Modeling Down Syndrome with Patient iPSCs Reveals Cellular and Migration Deficits of GABAergic Neurons

The brain of Down syndrome (DS) patients exhibits fewer interneurons in the cerebral cortex, but its underlying mechanism remains unknown. By morphometric analysis of cortical interneurons generated from DS and euploid induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), we found that DS GABA neurons are smaller and with fewer neuronal processes. The proportion of calretinin over calbindin GABA neurons is reduced, and the neuronal migration capacity is decreased. Such phenotypes were replicated following transplantation of the DS GABAergic progenitors into the mouse medial septum. Gene expression profiling revealed altered cell migratory pathways, and correction of the PAK1 pathway mitigated the cell migration deficit in vitro. These results suggest that impaired migration of DS GABAergic neurons may contribute to the reduced number of interneurons in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in DS patients.

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DS iPSC-derived GABA interneurons show cellular deficits

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DS GABA interneurons exhibit decreased migration in vitro and in vivo

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RNA-seq reveals that expression of PAK1 is disrupted in the DS interneurons

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Regulation of PAK1 pathway rescues the defects of migration

Fully-Automated μMRI Morphometric Phenotyping of the Tc1 Mouse Model of Down Syndrome

We describe a fully automated pipeline for the morphometric phenotyping of mouse brains from μMRI data, and show its application to the Tc1 mouse model of Down syndrome, to identify new morphological phenotypes in the brain of this first transchromosomic animal carrying human chromosome 21. We incorporate an accessible approach for simultaneously scanning multiple ex vivo brains, requiring only a 3D-printed brain holder, and novel image processing steps for their separation and orientation. We employ clinically established multi-atlas techniques–superior to single-atlas methods–together with publicly-available atlas databases for automatic skull-stripping and tissue segmentation, providing high-quality, subject-specific tissue maps. We follow these steps with group-wise registration, structural parcellation and both Voxel- and Tensor-Based Morphometry–advantageous for their ability to highlight morphological differences without the laborious delineation of regions of interest. We show the application of freely available open-source software developed for clinical MRI analysis to mouse brain data: NiftySeg for segmentation and NiftyReg for registration, and discuss atlases and parameters suitable for the preclinical paradigm. We used this pipeline to compare 29 Tc1 brains with 26 wild-type littermate controls, imaged ex vivo at 9.4T. We show an unexpected increase in Tc1 total intracranial volume and, controlling for this, local volume and grey matter density reductions in the Tc1 brain compared to the wild-types, most prominently in the cerebellum, in agreement with human DS and previous histological findings.

Neurogenesis, Neurodegeneration, Interneuron Vulnerability, and Amyloid-β in the Olfactory Bulb of APP/PS1 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, mostly idiopathic and with palliative treatment. Neuropathologically, it is characterized by intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of tau protein and extracellular plaques of amyloid β peptides. The relationship between AD and neurogenesis is unknown, but two facts are particularly relevant. First, early aggregation sites of both proteinopathies include the hippocampal formation and the olfactory bulb (OB), which have been correlated to memory and olfactory deficits, respectively. These areas are well-recognized integration zones of newly-born neurons in the adult brain. Second, molecules, such as amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin-1 are common to both AD etiology and neurogenic development. Adult neurogenesis in AD models has been studied in the hippocampus, but only occasionally addressed in the OB and results are contradictory. To gain insight on the relationship between adult neurogenesis and AD, this work analyzes neurogenesis, neurodegeneration, interneuron vulnerability, and amyloid-β involvement in the OB of an AD model. Control and double-transgenic mice carrying the APP and the presenilin-1 genes, which give rise amyloid β plaques have been used. BrdU-treated animals have been studied at 16, 30, 43, and 56 weeks of age. New-born cell survival (BrdU), neuronal loss (using neuronal markers NeuN and PGP9.5), differential interneuron (calbindin-, parvalbumin-, calretinin- and somatostatin-expressing populations) vulnerability, and involvement by amyloid β have been analyzed. Neurogenesis increases with aging in the granule cell layer of control animals from 16 to 43 weeks. No neuronal loss has been observed after quantifying NeuN or PGP9.5. Regarding interneuron population vulnerability: calbindin-expressing neurons remains unchanged; parvalbumin-expressing neurons trend to increase with aging in transgenic animals; calretinin-expressing neurons increase with aging in transgenic mice and decrease in control animals and neurogenesis is higher in control as compared to transgenic animals at given ages, finally; somatostatin-expressing neurons of transgenic mice decrease with aging and as compared to controls. Amyloid β aggregates with aging in the granule cell layer, which may be related to the particular involvement of somatostatin-expressing cells.

Hypocellularity in the Murine Model for Down Syndrome Ts65Dn Is Not Affected by Adult Neurogenesis

Down syndrome (DS) is caused by the presence of an extra copy of the chromosome 21 and it is the most common aneuploidy producing intellectual disability. Neural mechanisms underlying this alteration may include defects in the formation of neuronal networks, information processing and brain plasticity. The murine model for DS, Ts65Dn, presents reduced adult neurogenesis. This reduction has been suggested to underlie the hypocellularity of the hippocampus as well as the deficit in olfactory learning in the Ts65Dn mice. Similar alterations have also been observed in individuals with DS. To determine whether the impairment in adult neurogenesis is, in fact, responsible for the hypocellularity in the hippocampus and physiology of the olfactory bulb, we have analyzed cell proliferation and neuronal maturation in the two major adult neurogenic niches in the Ts656Dn mice: the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ). Additionally, we carried out a study to determine the survival rate and phenotypic fate of newly generated cells in both regions, injecting 5'BrdU and sacrificing the mice 21 days later, and analyzing the number and phenotype of the remaining 5'BrdU-positive cells. We observed a reduction in the number of proliferating (Ki67 positive) cells and immature (doublecortin positive) neurons in the subgranular and SVZ of Ts65Dn mice, but we did not observe changes in the number of surviving cells or in their phenotype. These data correlated with a lower number of apoptotic cells (cleaved caspase 3 positive) in Ts65Dn. We conclude that although adult Ts65Dn mice have a lower number of proliferating cells, it is compensated by a lower level of cell death. This higher survival rate in Ts65Dn produces a final number of mature cells similar to controls. Therefore, the reduction of adult neurogenesis cannot be held responsible for the neuronal hypocellularity in the hippocampus or for the olfactory learning deficit of Ts65Dn mice.

Activity Dependency and Aging in the Regulation of Adult Neurogenesis

Age and activity might be considered the two antagonistic key regulators of adult neurogenesis. Adult neurogenesis decreases with age but remains present, albeit at a very low level, even in the oldest individuals. Activity, be it physical or cognitive, increases adult neurogenesis and thereby seems to counteract age effects. It is, thus, proposed that activity-dependent regulation of adult neurogenesis might contribute to some sort of "neural reserve," the brain's ability to compensate functional loss associated with aging or neurodegeneration. Activity can have nonspecific and specific effects on adult neurogenesis. Mechanistically, nonspecific stimuli that largely affect precursor cell stages might be related by the local microenvironment, whereas more specific, survival-promoting effects take place at later stages of neuronal development and require the synaptic integration of the new cell and its particular synaptic plasticity.

Histopathological analysis of the olfactory epithelium of zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to sublethal doses of urea

Chronic renal disease is known to alter olfactory function, but the specific changes induced in olfactory organs during this process remain unclear. Of the uraemic toxins generated during renal disease, high levels of urea are known to induce hyposmic conditions. In this study, the effects of environmental exposure to elevated concentrations of urea (7, 13.5 and 20 g L(-1)) on the sensory mucosa of zebrafish in acute toxicity and chronic toxicity tests were described. It was observed that lamellae maintained structural integrity and epithelial thickness was slightly reduced, but only following exposure to the highest concentrations of urea. Pan-neuronal labelling with anti-Hu revealed a negative correlation with levels of urea, leading to investigation of whether distinct neuronal subtypes were equally sensitive. Using densitometric analysis of immunolabelled tissues, numbers of Gα olf-, TRPC2- and TrkA-expressing cells were compared, representing ciliated, microvillous and crypt neurons, respectively. The three neuronal subpopulations responded differently to increasing levels of urea. In particular, crypt cells were more severely affected than the other cell types, and Gα olf-immunoreactivity was found to increase when fish were exposed to low doses of urea. It can be concluded that exposure to moderate levels of urea leads to sensory toxicity directly affecting olfactory organs, in accordance with the functional olfactometric measurements previously reported in the literature.

Analysis of adult cerebral cortex and hippocampus transcriptomes reveals unique molecular changes in the Ts1Cje mouse model of down syndrome

We investigated gene expression and functional differences between Ts1Cje mice and wild-type (WT) littermates in adult cerebral cortex and hippocampus. These two brain regions are affected in people with Down syndrome, but have not been previously molecularly characterized in Ts1Cje mice. Total RNA was prepared from the brains of 8-10-week-old Ts1Cje mice (n = 6) and WT littermates (n = 5) and hybridized to Affymetrix 1.0 ST gene mouse arrays. Differentially regulated genes were identified and used to perform in silico functional analyses to better characterize dysregulated pathways in both brain regions. Hippocampus had more significantly differentially expressed genes compared with cortex (30 vs. 7 at a Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate of 20%). We identified novel genes that were differentially regulated in adult brains, including Cyb5r1, Fsbp, Vmn2r110, Snd1 and Zhx2. Functional analyses in Ts1Cje mice highlighted the importance of NFAT signaling, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and olfactory perception via G-protein signaling. In a comparison of adult Ts1Cje and WT brains, we identified new genes and pathway differences in the cortex and hippocampus. Our analyses identified physiologically relevant pathways that can serve as targets for the development of future treatments to improve neurocognition in Down syndrome.