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Pathogenesis of Anemia in Canine Babesiosis: Possible Contribution of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines-A Review. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020166. [PMID: 36839438 PMCID: PMC9962459 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne protozoan disease caused by intraerythrocytic parasites of the genus Babesia. The infection may lead to anemia in infected dogs. However, anemia is not directly caused by the pathogen. The parasite's developmental stages only have a marginal role in contributing to a decreased red blood cell (RBC) count. The main cause of anemia in affected dogs is the immune response to the infection. This response includes antibody production, erythrophagocytosis, oxidative damage of RBCs, complement activation, and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Moreover, both infected and uninfected erythrocytes are retained in the spleen and sequestered in micro-vessels. All these actions are driven by pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, especially IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8. Additionally, imbalance between the actions of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines plays a role in patho-mechanisms leading to anemia in canine babesiosis. This article is a review of the studies on the pathogenesis of anemia in canine babesiosis and related diseases, such as bovine or murine babesiosis and human or murine malaria, and the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the mechanisms leading to anemia in infected dogs.
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Rodrigues RG, Soares JF, Soares AG, Ferian PE, Milbratz GH, Chryssafidis AL, de Moura AB. First report of canine rangeliosis in domestic dogs from different regions of Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2022; 36:100804. [PMID: 36436892 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2022.100804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Rangeliosis is the disease caused by Rangelia vitalii, a parasite reported in dogs from southeastern and southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina. This protozoan is transmitted by the ixodid Amblyomma aureolatum, and infects erythrocytes, leukocytes, and vascular endothelial cells of the host. The common clinical signs, such as prostration, fever, anemia, thrombocytopenia, anorexia, weight loss, and dehydration, are also found in other infections, like canine babesiosis and ehrlichiosis. The similar clinical presentation with other diseases, as well as the indistinguishable morphology with intraerythrocytic Babesia canis, complicates the disease diagnostic. In the present study, blood samples from dogs presenting clinical signs compatible with hemoparasitosis were investigated for rangeliosis. The dogs were treated at veterinary clinics in the cities of Blumenau and Lages, in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Blood samples from 17 dogs were analyzed by PCR. The samples were screened by a conventional piroplasma-PCR and the positives confirmed by a specific R. vitalii-qPCR. Two animals (2/17; 11.8%) were positive for R. vitalii, one from Blumenau and the other from Lages. Both animals presented unspecific signs of hemoparasitosis, such as apathy, anemia, and anorexia. The results indicate the necessity of molecular assays for the proper identification of the hemoparasite, and to investigate the real prevalence of rangeliosis in the State of Santa Catarina.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - João Fábio Soares
- Protozoology Laboratory, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Dos Santos FB, Gazêta GS, Corrêa LL, Lobão LF, Palmer JPS, Dib LV, Damasceno JAL, Moura-Martiniano NO, Bastos OMP, Uchôa CMA, da Silva Barbosa A. Microscopic Detection, Hematological Evaluation and Molecular Characterization of Piroplasms from Naturally Infected Dogs in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Acta Parasitol 2021; 66:1548-1560. [PMID: 34129160 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-021-00426-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to analyze the frequency of piroplasmids in the blood of dogs in Rio de Janeiro, compare the performance of microscopic techniques, assess the risk factors associated with infections and also molecularly and morphologically characterize the piroplasmids identified. METHODS In all, 407 blood samples were collected from dogs between 2018 and 2019. These were subjected to microscopic parasitological techniques for thin and thick smears, stained with Giemsa and using a rapid staining kit. The slides were read under an optical microscope and the protozoa were characterized morphometrically. In addition, the blood samples were subjected to molecular characterization for diagnosing piroplasmid species using primers that amplified the gene 18S rRNA. RESULTS Piroplasmids were detected in 38 (9.3%) samples. Of these, 33 samples presented nucleotide sequences compatible with Babesia vogeli. Most of the positive samples were young, male, defined breeds dogs that had been attended in clinics in São Gonçalo city. Thrombocytopenia and leukopenia were the hematological alterations more observed in positive samples, but positive samples without alterations were also detected. The sex was the only variable that showed statistical differences. Males dogs being more often infected than females (p < 0.05). The microscope slides mostly showed piriform and oval merozoites measuring greater than 2.5 µm in length, which were compatible with B. vogeli. However, smaller forms were also identified, thus demonstrating the polymorphic nature of this parasite. CONCLUSION Babesia vogeli was detected in blood samples from dogs in the metropolitan cities of Rio de Janeiro by molecular techniques in different parasite morphotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Barbosa Dos Santos
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - Gilberto Salles Gazêta
- Laboratório de Referência Nacional em Vetores das Riquetsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21045-900, Brazil
| | - Laís Lisboa Corrêa
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - Lucas Fernandes Lobão
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - João Pedro Siqueira Palmer
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - Laís Verdan Dib
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - José André Lessa Damasceno
- Centro de Diagnóstico Veterinário, Rua General Silvestre Rocha, 131, Icaraí, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24220-170, Brazil
| | - Nicole Oliveira Moura-Martiniano
- Laboratório de Referência Nacional em Vetores das Riquetsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21045-900, Brazil
| | - Otilio Machado Pereira Bastos
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - Claudia Maria Antunes Uchôa
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil
| | - Alynne da Silva Barbosa
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rua Professor Hernani Mello, São Domingos, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, 24210-130, Brasil.
- Laboratório de Toxoplasmoses e outras Protozooses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz, RJ), Avenida Brasil, 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21045-900, Brasil.
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De Lorenzo C, Boabaid FM, de Oliveira LGS, Bianchi MV, Félix ML, Armúa-Fernández MT, Soares JF, Venzal JM, Sonne L. Rangelia vitalii in free-living crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) in Uruguay. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101765. [PMID: 34146934 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is a protozoan parasite that causes a hemorrhagic and hemolytic disease in dogs known as rangeliosis. Current reports of the disease are concentrated in the southern and southeastern regions of Brazil, as well as in Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay, and mainly concern domestic dogs. South American wild canids, such as the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), the pampas fox (Lycalopex gymnocercus), and the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) may also be affected, although existing reports are restricted to Brazil. The present study aimed to detect R. vitalii parasitism in the Uruguayan wild fox population. DNA extracted from the blood and/or spleen samples of road-killed C. thous and L. gymnocercus found in northern Uruguay were subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify a 551-bp fragment of the Rangelia 18S rRNA gene. A total of 62 wild canids, including 38 C. thous and 24L. gymnocercus, were analyzed. Five crab-eating fox samples (13.2%) were positive for R. vitalii, with 99.5-100% identity between the sequences. All samples from pampas fox tested negative for R. vitalii. When compared with the R. vitalii sequences available in GenBank, a similarity of 98.9-100% was revealed. Molecular analysis results suggest that R. vitalii is circulating in the crab-eating fox population in Uruguay; however, its veterinary relevance for these foxes remains unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cíntia De Lorenzo
- Setor de Patologia Veterinária, Departamento de Patologia Clínica Veterinária, Faculdade de Veterinária (FAVET), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Marques Boabaid
- Polo de Desarrollo Universitario del Instituto Superior de la Carne, Sede Tacuarembó, Centro Universitario Regional (CENUR) Noreste, Universidad de la República, Ruta 5, Km 386, Tacuarembó 45000, Uruguay
| | - Luiz Gustavo Schneider de Oliveira
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIA), Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental INIA Tacuarembó, Ruta 5, Km 386, Tacuarembó 45000, Uruguay
| | - Matheus Viezzer Bianchi
- Setor de Patologia Veterinária, Departamento de Patologia Clínica Veterinária, Faculdade de Veterinária (FAVET), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - María L Félix
- Laboratorio de Vectores y enfermedades transmitidas, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, CENUR Litoral Norte - Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, CP, 50000 Salto, Uruguay
| | - María T Armúa-Fernández
- Laboratorio de Vectores y enfermedades transmitidas, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, CENUR Litoral Norte - Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, CP, 50000 Salto, Uruguay
| | - João Fábio Soares
- Laboratório de Protozoologia e Rickettsioses Vetoriais (ProtozooVet), Departamento de Patologia Clínica Veterinária, FAVET, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS 91540-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - José M Venzal
- Laboratorio de Vectores y enfermedades transmitidas, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, CENUR Litoral Norte - Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, CP, 50000 Salto, Uruguay
| | - Luciana Sonne
- Setor de Patologia Veterinária, Departamento de Patologia Clínica Veterinária, Faculdade de Veterinária (FAVET), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Use of molecular tools for the diagnosis of rangeliosis by Rangelia vitalii in Argentina: A case report. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2020; 21:100426. [PMID: 32862911 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2020.100426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Vector-borne pathogens are responsible for serious emerging diseases and Rangelia vitalii, the etiologic agent of canine rangeliosis, is one of the most pathogenic tick-borne pathogens for dogs in South America. This protozoan is transmitted by the Amblyomma aureolatum tick bite and the clinical features associated to the disease are fever, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly and bleeding from natural orifices, mainly from the ear egde. The reports of canine rangeliosis in Argentina are scarce. In the present study we report the detection of Rangelia vitalii in a naturally infected dog from Gualeguay, Entre Ríos, Argentina with history of tick infestation and clinical signs compatible with rangeliosis. An initial blood sample was positive to piroplasmids by blood smear examination and the molecular amplification of a fragment of the 18SrRNA gene. Sequencing of the fragment confirmed the pathogen identity. After treatment with imidocarb dipropionate, the clinical signs remitted and the blood smear tested negative.
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Presentation of hemolytic and hemorrhagic rangeliosis in Cerdocyon thous. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 10:690-693. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Campos SDE, Toma HK, Machado CDSC, Assad RQ, Almosny NRP. Novel record of a tick Amblyomma sculptum with detection of piroplasm Rangelia vitalii DNA. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2018; 13:228-229. [PMID: 31014880 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is the protozoan responsible for a febrile tick-borne disease known as "Nambiuvú" or "bleeding plague." The only competent vector of this protozoan recognized in Brazil is the tick Amblyomma aureolatum. The aim of this study was to identify R. vitalii using molecular biology in ticks parasitizing Cerdocyon thous from Tijuca and Serra dos Órgãos National Parks, which are areas of the Atlantic Rainforest biome in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. After taxonomic identification, ticks were crushed and DNA was extracted and examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to verify amplification of a fragment of the 18S rRNA gene of piroplasms. Samples identified as positive in the PCR analysis were subjected to sequencing, which revealed high identity with sequences of R. vitalii. This is the first report of parasitizing nymphs of A. sculptum infected by R. vitalii under natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Helena Keiko Toma
- Laboratório de Diagnóstico Molecular e Hematologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Renata Quintela Assad
- Departamento de Patologia e Clínica Veterinária, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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França RT, Pillat MM, da Silva CB, Schafer AS, Dornelles GL, Costa MM, Chaves RO, de Andrade CM, Erhardt MM, Antoziazzi AQ, Ulrich H, da Silva AS, Lopes STDA. Surface immunoglobulins of erythrocytes and platelets in dogs naturally infected by Rangelia vitalii. Microb Pathog 2018; 121:245-251. [PMID: 29800698 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.05.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is a protozoan of the Babesiidae family that parasitizes domestic and wild dogs in South American countries. The main laboratory findings in blood samples from animals infected by R. vitalii are anemia and thrombocytopenia. The aim of this study was to detect IgM and IgG immunoglobulins on the surface of red blood cells and platelets, as well as to determine the percentage of reticulated platelets and reticulocytes in dogs naturally infected by R. vitalii. Blood samples from twenty dogs seen at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) were divided into two groups: the diseased group consisted of blood samples from 10 animals with the diagnosis of rangeliosis, and the healthy group (control) consisted of samples from 10 healthy animals. All diseased dogs showed normocytic normochromic anemia but showed no differences (p > 0.05) in reticulocyte counts compared to healthy dogs. Moreover, IgM and IgG immunoglobulins were detected on the surface of the plasma membrane of red blood cells from both groups, but the amounts did not differ between groups (p > 0.05). Thrombocytopenia in infected animals was classified as severe. The percentage of reticulated platelets was higher (p < 0.001) in diseased dogs than in healthy animals. Diseased animals showed more IgM immunoglobulins bound to the surface of platelets than did the healthy group (p < 0.001). However, the amount of IgG bound to the surface of platelets was not different between groups. In conclusion, we showed that R. vitalii caused immune-mediated thrombocytopenia since IgM immunoglobulins were found on the surface of platelets of diseased dogs. We suggest that the binding of immunoglobulins on platelet surfaces contributes to early destruction of these cells and, consequently, alterations in hemostasis. An increase in reticulated platelets was noted in response to thrombocytopenia, indicating active thrombopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Micheli Mainardi Pillat
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Márcio Machado Costa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade de Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Henning Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Silva MRLD, Mattoso CRS, Costa A, Saito ME, Tchaicka L, O'Dwyer LH. Rangelia vitalii and Hepatozoon canis coinfection in pampas fox Lycalopex gymnocercus from Santa Catarina State, Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 27:377-383. [PMID: 29846457 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-296120180018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is a haemoparasite that infects erythrocytes, white blood cells and the cytoplasm of endothelial cells of blood capillaries of canids in South America, and has been detected in both domestic dogs and sylvatic canids. Hepatozoon canis is a parasite that infects neutrophils and monocytes of many mammalian hosts. This study reports the infection of Lycalopex gymnocercus from Santa Catarina, Brazil, with R. vitalii and H. canis. The piroplasm was observed on both blood smears and molecular tests. Many large piroplasms were detected inside the erythrocytes, with round, oval, or teardrop-shaped organism, that occurred singly or in pairs. They had an abundant, pale blue cytoplasm and decentral dark red small nucleus. The animal was also infected with H. canis that was detected only by molecular tests. The majority of haematological and biochemistry parameters were within the reference values for domestic dog and wild canids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Regina Lucas da Silva
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brasil
| | - Cláudio Roberto Scabelo Mattoso
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Adson Costa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias - CAV, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina - UDESC, Lages, SC, Brasil
| | - Mere Erika Saito
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias - CAV, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina - UDESC, Lages, SC, Brasil
| | - Lygia Tchaicka
- Centro de Ciências Exatas e Naturais, Universidade Estadual do Maranhão - UEMA, São Luis, MA, Brasil
| | - Lucia Helena O'Dwyer
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brasil
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Lemos TD, Toma HK, Assad RQ, Silva AVD, Corrêa RGB, Almosny NRP. Clinical and hematological evaluation of Rangelia vitalii-naturally infected dogs in southeastern Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2017; 26:307-313. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612017040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Rangelia vitalii, a tick-borne piroplasm that infects dogs, has been recently molecularly characterized in Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. Studies on molecular characterization of these piroplasms in different Brazilian regions are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate clinical and hematological changes in dogs caused by R. vitalii in the mountainous region of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Blood samples from 36 dogs were evaluated for piroplasms and hematological disorders using light microscopy and molecular analysis. Blood samples from all the animals included in this study were confirmed to be positive for R. vitalii through genetic sequencing. Clinical signspresented by 24 of the 36 dogs of the study were evaluated during appointments or hospitalization within private practice. The most frequent clinical disorders in these dogs that were naturally infected with R. vitalii were fever, spontaneous cutaneous bleeding and diarrhea. Normochromic non-regenerative anemia and thrombocytopenia were the most common hematological disorders in these R. vitalii-positive dogs and therefore should be considered in hematological evaluations on suspected cases.
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Silveira JAG, D'Elia ML, de Oliveira Avelar I, de Almeida LR, dos Santos HA, de Magalhães Soares DF, Ribeiro MFB, dos Santos Lima W, Ecco R. Rangelia vitalii in a free-ranging maned wolf ( Chrysocyon brachyurus) and co-infections. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2016; 5:280-285. [PMID: 27761403 PMCID: PMC5065047 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
An adult free-ranged female maned wolf was rescued from a periurban area subject to anthropogenic disturbances in the Minas Gerais, Brazil. The animal presented poor body condition and anemia. The clinical condition rapidly deteriorated culminating in dead and a necropsy was performed. The main gross lesions were marked anemia and blood content in the intestines accompanied by many types of parasites. The protozoa Rangelia vitalii was identified by histopathological analysis predominantly within the cytoplasm of endothelial cells of capillaries of the small intestine. The lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, dermis, lungs and kidney had similar protozoal forms but with mild or moderate intensity. Rangelia vitalii was confirmed by molecular assays. Hepatozoon sp., Leishmania sp., and Entamoeba spp., apparently not related to the clinical signs were also detected. The myriad parasites found in the intestines included nematodes (Ancylostoma caninum, A. braziliensis,, Molineus sp., Pterygodermatites sp., and Trichuris sp.), cestodes (Spirometra sp.) and (acanthocephalans. To our knowledge, R. vitalii was identified in C. brachyurus for the first time. These findings emphasize the fragility of Brazilian ecosystems, especially in disturbed areas, reinforcing the necessity of efforts to preserve these areas and wild carnivores, some of which are threatened with extinction, such as the maned wolf. Rangelia vitalii was found in Chrysocyon brachyurus, especially in small intestine. Co-infections with other parasites were found, including some with zoonotic potential. Anemia was likely linked to R. vitalii, Ancylostoma spp and perhaps Spirometra. Health status of the near threatened maned wolf reflects anthropogenic disturbed of habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mirella Lauria D'Elia
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Roselene Ecco
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Corresponding author. Av Antonio Carlos, 6627, Laboratório de Patologia, Departamento de Clinica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 31270901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.Laboratório de PatologiaDepartamento de Clinica e Cirurgia VeterináriasEscola de VeterináriaUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisAv Antonio Carlos, 6627Belo HorizonteMinas Gerais31270901Brazil
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Development of a quantitative PCR for the detection of Rangelia vitalii. Vet Parasitol 2016; 217:113-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Natural Infection of Wild Canids (Cerdocyon thous and Lycalopex gymnocercus) with the Intraendothelial Piroplasm Rangelia vitalii in Southern Brazil. J Wildl Dis 2015; 51:880-4. [DOI: 10.7589/2014-12-283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Soares JF, Carvalho L, Maya L, Dutra F, Venzal JM, Labruna MB. Molecular detection of Rangelia vitalii in domestic dogs from Uruguay. Vet Parasitol 2015; 210:98-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Eiras DF, Craviotto MB, Baneth G, Moré G. First report of Rangelia vitalii infection (canine rangeliosis) in Argentina. Parasitol Int 2014; 63:729-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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16
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França RT, Da Silva AS, Loretti AP, Mazzanti CM, Lopes ST. Canine rangeliosis due to Rangelia vitalii: From first report in Brazil in 1910 to current day – A review. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:466-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Da Silva AS, França RT, Costa MM, Paim FC, Pimentel VC, Schmatz R, Jaques JA, Schetinger MRC, Mazzanti CM, Tonin AA, Monteiro SG, Lopes STA. Adenosine levels in serum and adenosine deaminase activity in blood cells of dogs infected by Rangelia vitalii. J Parasitol 2013; 99:1125-8. [PMID: 23777319 DOI: 10.1645/13-176.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecto-adenosinedeaminase (E-ADA) plays an important role in the production and differentiation of blood cells as well as in the control of extracellular adenosine levels. Infectious diseases can influence the synthesis of new cells or cause cell destruction, as occurs in canine rangeliosis, which results in anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, and/or leukopenia. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate E-ADA activity in sera, erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and adenosine levels in sera samples of dogs infected by Rangelia vitalii. Twelve animals were divided into 2 groups: noninfected (n = 5) and infected by R. vitalii (n = 7). Animals were infected with 2 ml of blood containing the parasite, and parasitemia was estimated daily for 20 days by microscopic examination of peripheral blood smears. Blood collection was performed on days 0, 10, and 20 post-infection (PI) in order to evaluate the evolution of the disease. The blood collected was used to assess the activity of E-ADA. We observed an increase of E-ADA activity in sera (day 20 PI) and erythrocytes (days 10 and 20 PI) in the infected group (P < 0.05). E-ADA activity in lymphocytes was decreased on day 10, when the parasitemia was high, and increased after 20 days, when the number of circulating parasites was low. HPLC measured adenosine levels in the serum and found a reduction on days 10 and 20 PI. In conclusion, our results showed that E-ADA activity was altered in sera, lymphocytes, and erythrocytes of dogs experimentally infected by R. vitalii as well as the serum concentration of adenosine. These alterations may contribute to the pathogenesis of anemia and immune response in infected dogs.
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França RT, Da Silva AS, Costa MM, Paim FC, Soares JF, Labruna MB, Mazzanti CM, Lopes ST. Hematologic and bone marrow changes in dogs experimentally infected withRangelia vitalii. Vet Clin Pathol 2013; 42:31-9. [DOI: 10.1111/vcp.12023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raqueli T. França
- Department of Small Animals; Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM); Santa Maria-RS; Brazil
| | - Aleksandro S. Da Silva
- Department of Animal Science; Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC); Chapecó-SC; Brazil
| | - Marcio M. Costa
- Department of Small Animals; Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM); Santa Maria-RS; Brazil
| | - Francine C. Paim
- Department of Small Animals; Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM); Santa Maria-RS; Brazil
| | - João F. Soares
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine and Animal Health; Universidade de São Paulo (USP); São Paulo-SP; Brazil
| | - Marcelo B. Labruna
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine and Animal Health; Universidade de São Paulo (USP); São Paulo-SP; Brazil
| | - Cinthia M. Mazzanti
- Department of Small Animals; Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM); Santa Maria-RS; Brazil
| | - Sonia T.A. Lopes
- Department of Small Animals; Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM); Santa Maria-RS; Brazil
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Paim FC, Da Silva AS, Paim CBV, França RT, Costa MM, Duarte MMMF, Sangoi MB, Moresco RN, Monteiro SG, Lopes STA. Increased cytokine and nitric oxide levels in serum of dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2013; 51:133-7. [PMID: 23467990 PMCID: PMC3587743 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2013.51.1.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2012] [Revised: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to measure the levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and nitrite/nitrate (NOx) in serum of dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. Twelve female mongrel dogs were divided into 2 groups; group A (uninfected controls) composed by healthy dogs (n=5) and group B consisting of dogs inoculated with R. vitalii (n=7). Animals were monitored by blood smear examinations, which showed intraerythrocytic forms of the parasite on day 5 post-infection (PI). Blood samples were collected through the jugular vein on days 0, 10, and 20 PI to determine the serum levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and NOx. Cytokines were assessed by ELISA quantitative sandwich technique, and NOx was measured by the modified Griess method. Cytokine levels (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6) were increased (P<0.01) in serum of infected animals. Serum levels of NOx were also increased on days 10 PI (P<0.01) and 20 PI (P<0.05) in infected animals. Therefore, the infection with R. vitalii causes an increase in proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide content. These alterations may be associated with host immune protection against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francine C Paim
- Laboratory of Veterinary Clinical Analysis-LACVet, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
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20
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Serum proteinogram, acute phase proteins and immunoglobulins in dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. Vet Parasitol 2013; 192:137-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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21
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Relationship between oxidative stress and clinical–pathological aspects in dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. Res Vet Sci 2012; 93:1309-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2012.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Revised: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 02/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Da Silva AS, Martins DB, Soares JF, França RT. Canine rangeliosis: the need for differential diagnosis. Parasitol Res 2012; 112:1329-32. [PMID: 23052787 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-3160-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Rangeliosis is a hemoparasitosis that affects dogs in Brazil. The disease has similar clinical and pathological characteristics to other hemo-protozoan infections. So, this paper has aimed to report a clinical case of infection by Rangelia vitalii in one dog, focusing on the need for the differential diagnosis to other infectious diseases. The animal showed apathy, anemia, thrombocytopenia, alteration of leucogram, and bleeding. The first difference was the observation of parasites in blood smears, where R. vitalii was visualized within leukocytes and erythrocytes. The confirmation of the clinical diagnosis was made by molecular test to R. vitalii. The dog was debilitated, and died a few hours after treatment at the veterinary hospital. At necropsy, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, and mild jaundice in the abdominal viscera were found. This article draws attention to the need for the parasitological, serological, and molecular to differential diagnosis in order to differentiate from other clinically similar disorders.
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Costa MM, França RT, Da Silva AS, Paim CB, Paim F, Amaral CHD, Dornelles GL, Cunha JPMCMD, Soares JF, Labruna MB, Mazzanti CMA, Monteiro SG, Lopes STDA. Rangelia vitalii: changes in the enzymes ALT, CK and AST during the acute phase of experimental infection in dogs. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2012; 21:243-8. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612012000300012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is a protozoon that causes diseases in dogs, and anemia is the most common laboratory finding. However, few studies on the biochemical changes in dogs infected with this protozoon exist. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the biochemical changes in dogs experimentally infected with R. vitalii, during the acute phase of the infection. For this study, 12 female dogs (aged 6-12 months and weighing between 4 and 7 kg) were used, divided in two groups. Group A was composed of healthy dogs (n = 5); and group B consisted of infected animals (n = 7). Blood samples were collected on days 0, 10, 20 and 30 after infection, using tubes without anticoagulant to obtain serum and analyze the biochemical parameters. An increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) on day 20 (P < 0.05) was observed. Also, increased creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were observed throughout the experimental period (P < 0.05). No changes in the serum gamma-glutamyltransferase, urea and creatinine levels were observed. Thus, is possible to conclude that experimental infection with R. vitalii in dogs causes changes to the biochemical profile, with increased ALT, AST and CK enzyme levels.
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Schnittger L, Rodriguez AE, Florin-Christensen M, Morrison DA. Babesia: a world emerging. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2012; 12:1788-809. [PMID: 22871652 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 368] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Babesia are tick-transmitted hemoprotozooans that infect mammals and birds, and which are acknowledged for their major impact on farm and pet animal health and associated economic costs worldwide. Additionally, Babesia infections of wildlife can be fatal if associated with stressful management practices; and human babesiosis, also transmitted by blood transfusion, is an increasing public-health concern. Due to the huge diversity of species reported to serve as Babesia hosts, all vertebrates might be potential carriers, as long as they are adequate hosts for Babesia-vector ticks. We here provide a comprehensive overview of the most relevant Babesia species, and a discussion of the classical taxonomic criteria. Babesia, Cytauxzoon and Theileria parasites are closely related and collectively referred to as piroplasmids. A possible scenario for the history of piroplasmids is presented in the context of recent findings, and its implications for future research avenues are outlined. Phylogenetic trees of all available 18S rRNA and hsp70 genes were generated, based on which we present a thoroughly revised molecular classification, comprising five monophyletic Babesia lineages, one Cytauxzoon clade, and one Theileria clade. Updated 18S rRNA and beta-tubulin gene trees of the B. microti isolates agree with those previously reported. To reconcile estimates of the origin of piroplasmids and ticks (~300 Ma, respectively), and mammalian radiation (60 Ma), we hypothesize that the dixenous piroplasmid life cycle evolved with the origin of ticks. Thus, the observed time gap between tick origin and mammalian radiation indicates the existence of hitherto unknown piroplasmid lineages and/or species in extant vertebrate taxa, including reptiles and possibly amphibians. The development and current status of the molecular taxonomy of Babesia, with emphasis on human-infecting species, is discussed. Finally, recent results from population genetic studies of Babesia parasites, and their implications for the development of pathogenicity, drug resistance and vaccines, are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonhard Schnittger
- Institute of Pathobiology, Center of Research in Veterinary and Agronomic Sciences, INTA-Castelar, Argentina.
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25
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Lemos TD, Cerqueira ADMF, Toma HK, Silva AVD, Corrêa RGB, Paludo GR, Massard CL, Almosny NRP. Detection and molecular characterization of piroplasms species from naturally infected dogs in southeast Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2012; 21:137-42. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612012000200012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Rangelia vitalii is a protozoon described from dogs in the south and southeast regions of Brazil. It is phylogenetically related to Babesia spp. that infects dogs, but data on this enigmatic parasite is still limited. The aim of this work was to detect piroplasm species in dogs in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, by 18S rRNA gene-based PCR assay, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequence analyses. Of 103 dogs examined, seven (6.8%) were positive for Babesia spp. by PCR. The amplified products were digested by restriction enzymes to differentiate the Babesia species, and one sample was identified as Babesia vogeli. The pattern observed for the other six amplification products did not match with pattern described for large Babesia infecting dogs. Sequencing analysis confirmed these six samples as R. vitalii, with high homologies (99-100%) with a sequence from south Brazil. This study confirms the presence of Babesia vogeli and Rangelia vitalii circulate in domestic dogs in Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Paim CB, Paim FC, Da Silva AS, França RT, Costa MM, Leal CA, Soares JF, Labruna MB, Schetinger MR, Mazzanti A, Mazzanti CM, Monteiro SG, Lopes ST. Thrombocytopenia and platelet activity in dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. Vet Parasitol 2012; 185:131-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Paim CBV, Da Silva AS, Paim FC, França RT, Costa MM, Souza VCG, Pimentel VC, Jaques JA, Mazzanti CM, Leal DBR, Monteiro SG, Schetinger MRC, Lopes STA. Activities of ectonucleotidases and adenosine deaminase in platelets of dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii. Exp Parasitol 2012; 131:252-7. [PMID: 22475775 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2012.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Rangeliosis is a disease which affects dogs in Brazil, caused by a piroplasm known as Rangelia vitalii. This disease causes a lot of clinico-pathological features, including the coagulation disorders associated with bleeding. The cause of these changes has not yet been determined. Considering the association of purinergic system and hemostasis this study aimed to evaluate the activity of enzymes that hydrolyze ATP, ADP and AMP; and deamination of adenosine in platelets from dogs experimentally infected with R. vitalii. For this study, 12 healthy young dogs (females) were used, separated in two groups. Group A (n=5) were uninfected controls, and group B were experimentally infected with R. vitalii (n=7). After being inoculated with R. vitalii-infected blood, animals were monitored by blood smear examinations, which showed intra-erythrocytic forms of the parasite after five days post-inoculation (PI). Blood samples were collected to quantitate and separate platelets (Day 0, 12 and 21 PI) and to measure the enzymatic activities (Day 12 and 21 PI). The activity of NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase and adenosine deaminase (ADA) was measured in platelets. A reduction (P<0.01) in the number of platelets was observed in R. vitalii-infected blood at Days 12 and 21 PI. At Day 12 PI, a reduction (P<0.01) in the hydrolysis of ATP, ADP and AMP, and deamination of adenosine was observed in dogs infected with R. vitalii. At Day 21 PI the ADA activity remained decreased, unlike the activity of NTPDase which increased (P<0.05). Based on these results we can conclude that ATP, ADP and AMP hydrolysis and adenosine deamination were altered in platelets of R. vitalii-infected dogs. Considering the importance of the purinergic system in hemostasis, it is believed that those changes contribute to the coagulation disorders and bleeding observed in R. vitalii-infected dogs and discussed in this manuscript.
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Da Silva AS, França RT, Costa MM, Paim CBV, Paim FC, Santos CMM, Flores EMM, Eilers TL, Mazzanti CM, Monteiro SG, do Amaral CH, Lopes STA. Influence of Rangelia vitalii (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmorida) on copper, iron, and zinc bloodstream levels in experimentally infected dogs. J Parasitol 2012; 98:1018-20. [PMID: 22409380 DOI: 10.1645/ge-2985.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of copper, iron, and zinc in blood serum of dogs experimentally infected with Rangelia vitalii (n = 7) compared with uninfected controls (n = 5). Serum metal levels were determined in blood samples collected at days 0, 10, 15, and 20 post-infection (PI). Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry was used to measure the levels of copper, iron, and zinc. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed among groups PI. Increased levels of copper and decreased levels of iron and zinc were observed in the infected animals. The infection by R. vitalii may, therefore, alter the serum metal levels, resulting in metabolic disorders in dogs. These metals are directly involved in many enzymatic systems; accordingly, alterations in their blood concentrations may also influence the pathogenesis of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandro S Da Silva
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil 97105-900.
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