FLOTAC can detect parasitic and pseudoparasitic elements in reptiles

Endoparasite Infections in Captive Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) in Italy

The inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a lizard species commonly kept as a pet worldwide. Endoparasites are among the most important pathogens affecting bearded dragons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the endoparasites in captive P. vitticeps in Italy. Faecal samples from 30 P. vitticeps were analysed by fresh faecal smears, flotation tests, the Mini-FLOTAC technique, and a rapid immunoassay to detect Cryptosporidium spp. To search for microsporidia, PCR and sequencing were performed on the faecal samples. Data were statistically analysed. The overall positivity rate for endoparasites was 83.3% (25/30). The identified endoparasites were oxyurids (17/30, 56.7%), Isosospora amphiboluri (13/30, 43.3%), Encephalitozoon pogonae (4/18, 22.22%), and Cryptosporidium sp. (1/30, 3.33%). The positivity for protozoa was significantly higher in juveniles compared to adults. Moreover, the frequency of clinical signs was significantly higher in the positive animals. The results obtained here emphasize the importance of regular veterinary examinations of captive P. vitticeps, aimed at the diagnosis, treatment, and control of endoparasites. This study is one of the largest surveys on microsporidia infections in living bearded dragons, suggesting that E. pogonae may be widespread in this lizard.

Squamata reptiles as a potential source of helminth infections when preyed on by companion animals

BACKGROUND

Squamate reptiles cohabiting with companion animals may represent a source of helminth infections, especially through predation by dogs and cats with an outdoor lifestyle.

METHODS

In order to assess the role of reptiles as intermediate/paratenic hosts of trophically transmitted helminths, synanthropic reptiles (n = 245) captured from different ecological settings (i.e., households, dog shelters, urban, peri-urban and rural areas or natural parks) of southern Italy were examined for endoparasites. Parasitic cysts (i.e., larval forms of acanthocephalans, cestodes and nematodes) and free helminths (i.e., adult nematodes and digeneans) were morphologically and molecularly identified, and statistical analysis was carried out to evaluate the correlations between reptiles, infections, and ecological settings.

RESULTS

Overall, 31% of reptiles were positive for at least one helminth, with Podarcis siculus (18.7%) and Tarentola mauritanica (8.1%) being the most frequently infected species. Among the parasites of medical interest, Joyeuxiella echinorhyncoides showed the highest prevalence (19.7%), followed by Diplopylidium acanthotetra (10.5%), Joyeuxiella pasqualei, Mesocestoides lineatus (5.6%) and Physaloptera sp. (3.9%). Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus was detected once. Podarcis siculus and T. mauritanica were associated with cestode infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The wide range of helminths detected here in reptiles living in sympatry with pets and the fact that many of these helminth species are parasitic and may infect companion animals (e.g., J. pasqualei, J. echinorhyncoides, D. acanthotetra, Physaloptera sp.) and humans (i.e., Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, Mesocestoides lineatus) indicate the potential health risk associated with pets preying on these small vertebrates. Our results indicate the need for complementary investigations of trophically transmitted parasites in dogs and cats living in sympatry with reptiles.

Vertebrates as uninfected disseminators of helminth eggs and larvae

The passive dispersal of non-mobile organisms by vertebrates (zoochory) is a common mechanism used to explain their often widespread distribution. Transport occurs either internally via the vertebrate digestive tract (endozoochory), or externally be adhering to skin, feathers or fur (ectozoochory), and its success is due to both physiological and ecological factors associated with the disseminating 'hosting' animal. Helminth eggs and larvae are generally non-mobile stages that are largely dependent on the movement of another animal, typically a host, for geographical dissemination. Studies on the zoochory of helminths by vertebrates are extensive and particularly long-standing, stretching back to the 19th century, although this literature is often overlooked when considering the biogeography of parasites. This review assesses the potential of helminths to be dispersed passively by zoochory examining evidence from both laboratory and field studies. The physiological dynamics of the vertebrate intestines and skin surface as hostile environments, as well as the characteristics of eggs and larvae which may facilitate successful transport are evaluated. The various mechanisms of helminth endo- and ectozoochory are presented and the likelihood of long-distance dispersal determined. It is concluded that zoochory is a potentially important means of disseminating parasites.

Endoparasites of pet reptiles and amphibians from exotic pet shows in Texas, United States

Reptiles and amphibians are becoming increasingly more common in the exotic pet trade and as such veterinary care is also rising. Parasitic infections can pose a serious threat to pet reptiles and amphibians and are a common finding in these exotic pets. The purpose of the present study was to determine the species composition of parasites among reptiles and amphibians entering the pet industry. Excreta were collected from 283 reptiles and amphibians (181 geckos, 23 chameleons, 21 frogs, 16 tortoises, 11 snakes, 1 caiman, and 31 other lizard species), representing 58 different species. Samples were collected from animals being sold at exotic pet shows in Texas, USA, where breeders from throughout the United States gathered to showcase their exotic pets. Excreta samples were tested using double centrifugation flotation with Sheather's sucrose solution. Endoparasites were identified in 51.9% of samples. The most prevalent helminth parasite among reptiles and amphibians were Pharyngodonidae (44.5%) nematodes. Oocysts of coccidians such as Isospora, Eimeria, and Choleoeimeria, and cysts of the ciliate Nyctotherus were also identified. The prevalence rates of endoparasites among animal groups ranged from 0 to 87.5%. The highest prevalence of infection was found in Testudines (87.5%), followed by Chamaeleonidae (87%), other lizards (76.7%), Amphibia (71.4%), Serpentes (63.6%), and then Gekkonidae (55.2%). No endoparasites were detected in the one Crocodylia sampled. Our results show that parasitic infections, many of which can cause clinical disease and mortality, are common in exotic reptiles and amphibians being sold or traded as pets in the United States, underlining the need for veterinary care and routine diagnostic screening for parasitic infections.

Coproparasitologic survey of gastrointestinal parasites in a captive leopard geckos collection (Eublepharis macularius)

An increase in exotic animal imports has been noticed in the last decades worldwide. In this scenario, reptiles represent a quite popular group of interest as exotic pets. However, they can harbor pathogens that under inadequate captivity conditions can lead to disease expression and sometimes death. This study performed coprological analysis to investigate gastrointestinal parasites in a private collection of leopard geckos (E. macularius) relating the results with husbandry practices. Twenty-three geckos of 1 to 5 years, weighing 30-65 g, of both sexes were used. Freshly voided fecal samples were collected and centrifugal fecal float technique was performed using Sheather's sugar solution. 65,21% animals were positive for gastrointestinal parasites. No animal presented any clinical signs but previous loss was reported in the colony. Among affected animals, 93,3% presented oxyurid eggs, 33,33% Strongyloidea eggs and 26,66% presented mite eggs. Four animals were infected with both nematodes. The groups found are commonly reported in captive reptiles and, due to their direct life cycle, reinfection is common in captive animals. The husbandry practices proved to be insufficient and preventive measures such as quarantine were not adopted by the owner, which can compromise not only the reptiles health but also people who deal with them.

Gastrointestinal investigation of parasites and Enterobacteriaceae in loggerhead sea turtles from Italian coasts

Background

Caretta caretta is the most abundant sea turtle species in the Mediterranean, and studies on this species have vastly expanded during recent years, including those investigating gut bacterial and parasitic communities. Members of these communities have been reported with variable prevalence and pathogenicity, mainly depending on their host and environment (e.g. lifespan, distribution, habitat, diet, health status and stressors). Indeed, many species commonly inhabiting the sea turtle gastrointestinal tract exhibit an opportunistic behaviour.

This study aimed to provide baseline data on enterobacterial and parasitic composition, through bacteriological culture-based methods and the FLOTAC parasitological technique, in cloacal and faecal samples of 30 live Caretta caretta, examined upon their arrival at the Marine Turtle Research Centre (Portici, Italy).

Results

Enterobacteriaceae were isolated in 18/23 cloacal samples (78.3%), with Citrobacter and Morganella as the most common genera, followed by Proteus, Enterobacter, Providencia, and Hafnia. Parasitic elements were detected in 11/30 faecal samples (36.7%), with Enodiotrema, Rhytidodes, and Eimeria as most common genera, followed by Pachypsolus and Cymatocarpus. Additionally, Angiodyctium is reported for the first time in this host. The majority (47.8%) of sea turtles hosted exclusively Enterobacteriaceae, whereas 30.4% hosted both parasites and Enterobacteriaceae; the remaining 21.8% hosted neither of the agents.

Conclusions

Bacteria and parasites evaluated in the present study are common in Mediterranean loggerhead sea turtles, with slight differences between the western and eastern basin. Although naturally present in the gastrointestinal system of free-living sea turtles, their relationship with these hosts might range from mutualism to parasitism. Indeed, members of the gut community might express their pathogenic potential in immune-compromised animals, such as those in rehabilitation facilities. Therefore, it is advisable to include in the standard work-up of rescued sea turtles a screening procedure for such opportunistic agents, in order to better evaluate the animal’s health status and achieve timely intervention with appropriate treatment, thus improving rehabilitation. Furthermore, data collected from free-living sea turtles represent a starting point for investigating wild populations. However, further studies are needed to clarify the differences between sea turtle’s normal gut microbiome and pathobiome.

Parasites in feces of the endemic rattlesnake, Crotalus triseriatus (Serpentes: Viperidae), from Mexican highlands

There are few studies about parasitic infections in Crotalus triseriatus (Wagler, 1830), an endemic rattlesnake from the highlands of central Mexico. This species occupies several habitats, from conserved forested regions to heavily impacted landscapes. To increase the parasitological knowledge of this reptile species without impacting populations, we obtained fecal samples of 16 rattlesnakes between 2012 and 2014 from Toluca Valley, Mexico. By using flotation technique, we found oocysts of Eimeria sp. and eggs of Capillariidae sp. The most frequent parasite was Eimeria sp. (62.5%). This study provides the first records of occurrence of parasites in reptilian feces from Mexico. Our results may be important for wildlife conservation purposes, for example, they could indicate of the population health of this species during processes of translocation.

Bacteria and parasites in Podarcis sicula and P. sicula klemmerii

Background

New epidemiological data on bacterial and parasitic infections in 24 Italian wall lizards, namely Podarcis sicula (mainland population) and P. sicula klemmerii (insular population) in southern Italy were provided. To achieve this goal, samples were collected from individuals belonging to the two populations and analysed by microbiological and parasitological methods.

Results

A wide range of bacteria (e.g. Pantoea spp., Citrobacter spp., Morganella spp., Pseudomonas, Enterobacter spp., Staphylococcus spp. and Escherichia coli) and parasites (e.g. Ophionyssus natricis, coccidia, Dicrocoelidae) were detected in both P. sicula and P. sicula klemmerii individuals. Insular population presented similar bacterial and parasitic diversity to its mainland counterpart. Ampicillin was the antimicrobial with the highest resistance rate.

Conclusion

This study highlighted various bacteria and parasites, some of them potentially zoonotic. Further studies are needed to better understand the epidemiology and transmission routes of these pathogens along with their impact on the welfare and behaviour of Italian wall lizards.

Survey of endoparasites in pet guinea pigs in Italy

Little information is available on the occurrence of endoparasites in pet guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of intestinal parasites in cavies kept as pets in southern Italy. Fresh fecal samples were randomly collected from 60 guinea pigs housed in pet shops or privately owned. All fecal samples were processed using the FLOTAC pellet technique to identify and count helminthic eggs/larvae and protozoan cysts/oocysts. In addition, the specimens were analyzed also by the Remel Xpect® Giardia/Cryptosporidium immunoassay. Intestinal parasites were detected in 19 out of 60 guinea pigs (31.7 %). Paraspidodera uncinata eggs were found in 13.3 % (8/60) of the rodents examined, Nippostrongylus-like eggs in 10 % (6/60), and finally Eimeria caviae oocysts were found in 10 % (6/60) of the animals. In one case, both E. caviae oocysts and P. uncinata eggs were found. None of the samples was positive for Cryptosporidium or Giardia. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first survey of endoparasites in pet guinea pigs in Italy.

The current spectrum and prevalence of intestinal parasitosis in Campania (region of southern Italy) and their relationship with migration from endemic countries

BACKGROUND

In Italy, the current clinical-epidemiological features of intestinal parasitosis and the impact of recent massive migration flows from endemic areas on their distribution are not very well known.

METHODS

An analysis was carried out involving 1766 patients (720 natives and 1046 immigrants) observed during the period 2009-2010 (the 'current group') and 771 native patients observed during the period 1996-1997 (the 'historical group'), a time at which immigration in the area was minimal. Patients were analyzed for intestinal parasitosis at four healthcare centres in Campania.

RESULTS

A wide variety of intestinal parasites was detected in the study subjects. Immigrants had a significantly higher prevalence of parasitosis and multiple simultaneous infections than natives in both groups. In both study groups of natives, the detection of at least one parasite was significantly associated with a history of travel to endemic areas. Among immigrants, we found an inverse correlation between the frequency of parasite detection and the amount of time spent in Italy. No circulation of parasites was found among contacts of parasitized patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Intestinal parasites are still a cause of intestinal infection in Campania. Although immigrants have a significantly higher prevalence of parasitosis than natives, this does not increase the risk of infection for that population. This is likely due to the lack of suitable biological conditions in our area.

Diagnosis of gastrointestinal parasites in reptiles: comparison of two coprological methods

Background

Exotic reptiles have become increasingly common domestic pets worldwide and are well known to be carriers of different parasites including some with zoonotic potential. The need of accurate diagnosis of gastrointestinal endoparasite infections in domestic reptiles is therefore essential, not only for the well-being of captive reptiles but also for the owners. Here, two different approaches for the detection of parasite stages in reptile faeces were compared: a combination of native and iodine stained direct smears together with a flotation technique (CNF) versus the standard SAF-method.

Results

A total of 59 different reptile faeces (20 lizards, 22 snakes, 17 tortoises) were coprologically analyzed by the two methods for the presence of endoparasites. Analyzed reptile faecal samples contained a broad spectrum of parasites (total occurence 93.2%, n = 55) including different species of nematodes (55.9%, n = 33), trematodes (15.3%, n = 9), pentastomids (3.4%, n = 2) and protozoans (47.5%, n = 28). Associations between the performances of both methods to detect selected single parasite stages or groups of such were evaluated by Fisher's exact test and marginal homogeneity was tested by the McNemar test. In 88.1% of all examined samples (n = 52, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 77.1 - 95.1%) the two diagnostic methods rendered differing results, and the McNemar test for paired observations showed highly significant differences of the detection frequency (P < 0.0001).

Conclusion

The combination of direct smears/flotation proved superior in the detection of flagellates trophozoites, coccidian oocysts and nematode eggs, especially those of oxyurids. SAF-technique was superior in detecting larval stages and trematode eggs, but this advantage failed to be statistically significant (P = 0.13). Therefore, CNF is the recommended method for routine faecal examination of captive reptiles while the SAF-technique is advisable as additional measure particularly for wild caught animals and individuals which are to be introduced into captive collections.

First survey of endoparasites in pet ferrets in Italy

Endoparasites are infrequently reported in ferrets. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites in pet ferrets in southern Italy. Fresh fecal samples were randomly collected from 50 ferrets housed in pet shops or privately owned. All fecal samples were processed using the FLOTAC pellet technique to identify and count helminthic eggs/larvae and protozoan cysts/oocysts. In addition, the samples were analyzed also by the Remel XpectGiardia/Cryptosporidium immunoassay. Intestinal parasites were detected in 15 out of 50 ferrets (30%). Eggs of ancylostomids were found in 28.0% (14/50) of the animals and oocysts of Sarcocystis were detected in one ferret (2.0%). None of the samples was positive for Cryptosporidium or Giardia. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of sarcosporidiosis in a pet ferret in Italy.

Prevalence and molecular identification of Cryptosporidium isolates from pet lizards and snakes in Italy

In order to acquire prevalence and genetic data on Cryptosporidium infections in captive lizards and snakes kept as pets, a survey was conducted on 150 individual reptiles from southern Italy. Fecal samples were preserved in 5% formalin and analyzed using a commercial immunofluorescence assay (IFA) for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. IFA revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in nine of the 150 samples examined (6.0%), precisely in 6/125 snakes (4.8%) and in 3/25 lizards (12.0%); all fecal samples tested negative for the presence of Giardia cysts. Molecular characterization based on nested PCR amplification and sequencing of the SSU-rRNA gene, revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium serpentis in three samples from snakes (Boa constrictor constrictor, Elapheguttata guttata guttata and Python molurus).

Survey of co-infection by Salmonella and oxyurids in tortoises

Background

Salmonella spp. and oxyurids are among the most prevalent bacterial and parasitic agents in reptiles. These organisms are routinely isolated in healthy tortoises, although heavy infections may cause significant pathology. Tortoises are considered a common source of reptile-associated salmonellosis, an important zoonosis reported worldwide. A survey of the prevalence of Salmonella spp. and oxyurids in 53 tortoises was conducted in southern Italy and a possible correlation between the two pathogens was therefore investigated.

Results

Salmonella spp. and oxyurids were detected with a prevalence of 49.1 and 81.1%, respectively. A significant positive correlation between Salmonella spp. and oxyurids was demonstrated. However, confounding factors related to husbandry could have been involved in determining this correlation.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that caution should be exercised in translocation, husbandry, and human contact with tortoises and other exotic pets. Further studies on the epidemiology, molecular characterization and pathogenesis of Salmonella and oxyurids are needed to assess the actual impact of these organisms, as single or associated infections, on tortoises and on other exotic pets.