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Symeonidou I, Sioutas G, Lazou T, Gelasakis AI, Papadopoulos E. A Review of Toxoplasma gondii in Animals in Greece: A FoodBorne Pathogen of Public Health Importance. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2530. [PMID: 37570337 PMCID: PMC10416908 DOI: 10.3390/ani13152530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic protozoon with a complex life cycle and the second most important foodborne pathogen in Europe. Surveillance of toxoplasmosis is based on national considerations since there are no mandatory controls along the food chain in the European Union, and underreporting of meat is still a problem in many countries like Greece. The current review provides an overview of T. gondii prevalence, associated risk factors, and surveillance in animals in Greece, focusing on the transmission role of meat and highlighting the control measures that should be adopted by consumers. Sows, wild boars, hares, equines, and cats had lower, while sheep and goats generally had higher seroprevalence than their respective pooled European and global values. Seroprevalence in chickens was similar between Greece and Europe, while there was high variation in cattle studies, with no data regarding dairy products. Though a comprehensive meat safety assurance system is the most effective approach to control the principal biological hazards associated with meat, such as T. gondii, the prerequisite risk categorisation of farms and abattoirs based on EFSA's proposed harmonised epidemiological indicators has not materialised as yet in Greece. Therefore, comprehensive control strategies are still required to ensure food safety and safeguard public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaia Symeonidou
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Georgios Sioutas
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Thomai Lazou
- Laboratory of Hygiene of Foods of Animal Origin—Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Athanasios I. Gelasakis
- Laboratory of Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, Department of Animal Science, School of Animal Biosciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece;
| | - Elias Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.S.); (G.S.)
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Dámek F, Fremaux B, Aubert D, Thoumire S, Delsart M, Martin JL, Vuillermet S, Opsteegh M, Jokelainen P, Le Roux D, Boireau P, Villena I, Blaga R. Inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii in dry sausage and processed pork, and quantification of the pathogen in pig tissues prior to production. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2023; 31:e00194. [PMID: 37250657 PMCID: PMC10209801 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2023.e00194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an important zoonotic foodborne parasite. Meat of infected animals appears to be a major source of infection in Europe. Pork is the most consumed meat in France, with dry sausages well represented. The risk of transmission via consumption of processed pork products is largely unknown, mainly since processing will affect viability but may not entirely inactivate all T. gondii parasites. We investigated the presence and concentration of T. gondii DNA in the shoulder, breast, ham, and heart of pigs orally inoculated with 1000 oocysts (n = 3) or tissue cysts (n = 3) and naturally infected pigs (n = 2), by means of magnetic capture qPCR (MC-qPCR). Muscle tissues of experimentally infected pigs were further used to evaluate the impact of manufacturing processes of dry sausages, including different concentrations of nitrates (0, 60, 120, 200 ppm), nitrites (0, 60, 120 ppm), and NaCl (0, 20, 26 g/kg), ripening (2 days at 16-24 °C) and drying (up to 30 days at 13 °C), by a combination of mouse bioassay, qPCR and MC-qPCR. DNA of T. gondii was detected in all eight pigs, including in 41.7% (10/24) of muscle samples (shoulder, breast and ham) and 87.5% (7/8) of hearts by MC-qPCR. The number of parasites per gram of tissue was estimated to be the lowest in the hams (arithmetic mean (M) = 1, standard deviation (SD) = 2) and the highest in the hearts (M = 147, SD = 233). However, the T. gondii burden estimates varied on the individual animal level, the tissue tested and the parasitic stage used for the experimental infection (oocysts or tissue cysts). Of dry sausages and processed pork, 94.4% (51/54) were positive for T. gondii by MC-qPCR or qPCR, with the mean T. gondii burden estimate equivalent to 31 parasites per gram (SD = 93). Only the untreated processed pork sample collected on the day of production was positive by mouse bioassay. The results suggest an uneven distribution of T. gondii in the tissues examined, and possibly an absence or a concentration below the detection limit in some of them. Moreover, the processing of dry sausages and processed pork with NaCl, nitrates, and nitrites has an impact on the viability of T. gondii from the first day of production. Results are valuable input for future risk assessments aiming to estimate the relative contribution of different sources of T. gondii human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Dámek
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Bastien Fremaux
- IFIP - Institut du Porc, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Dominique Aubert
- National Reference Centre on Toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma Biological Resources Centre, CHU Reims and EA7510, SFR CAP-Santé, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, USC EpiToxo Anses, France
| | - Sandra Thoumire
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Maxime Delsart
- Anses, Ecole nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale USC EPIMAI, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Jean-Luc Martin
- IFIP - Institut du Porc, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sandra Vuillermet
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Marieke Opsteegh
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Statens Serum Institut, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Delphine Le Roux
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Pascal Boireau
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Isabelle Villena
- National Reference Centre on Toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma Biological Resources Centre, CHU Reims and EA7510, SFR CAP-Santé, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, USC EpiToxo Anses, France
| | - Radu Blaga
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
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3
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Toxoplasma gondii in Foods: Prevalence, Control, and Safety. Foods 2022; 11:foods11162542. [PMID: 36010541 PMCID: PMC9407268 DOI: 10.3390/foods11162542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, with approximately one third of the population around the world seropositive. The consumption of contaminated food is the main source of infection. These include meat products with T. gondii tissue cysts, and dairy products with tachyzoites. Recently, contamination has been detected in fresh products with oocysts and marine products. Despite the great health problems that are caused by T. gondii, currently there are no standardized methods for its detection in the food industry. In this review, we analyze the current detection methods, the prevalence of T. gondii in different food products, and the control measures. The main detection methods are bioassays, cell culture, molecular and microscopic techniques, and serological methods, but some of these do not have applicability in the food industry. As a result, emerging techniques are being developed that are aimed at the detection of multiple parasites simultaneously that would make their application more efficient in the industry. Since the prevalence of this parasite is high in many products (meat and milk, marine products, and vegetables), it is necessary to standardize detection methods, as well as implement control measures.
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Dessì G, Tamponi C, Pasini C, Porcu F, Meloni L, Cavallo L, Sini MF, Knoll S, Scala A, Varcasia A. A survey on Apicomplexa protozoa in sheep slaughtered for human consumption. Parasitol Res 2022; 121:1437-1445. [PMID: 35192068 PMCID: PMC8993733 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-022-07469-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Infections with the Apicomplexa Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, and Sarcocystis spp. are common causes of reproductive disorders in sheep. However, few epidemiological studies regarding co-infections with these three protozoa are reported in sheep in Italy. For this reason, this study aims to evaluate possible co-infections with T. gondii, N. caninum, and Sarcocystis spp. in sheep slaughtered for human consumption. From April to July 2019, individual blood, brain, heart, and diaphragm samples were collected from 138 sheep after slaughtering. The presence of IgG anti-Toxoplasma in serum samples was evaluated through ELISA. DNA of the three protozoa was investigated using specific PCRs. Co-infection with T. gondii, N. caninum and Sarcocystis spp. was found in 66.7% of the examined sheep. Antibodies against T. gondii were found in the 36.2% of serum samples. The presence of T. gondii DNA was detected in the 67.4%, 77.5%, and 21.7% of the brain, heart, and diaphragm samples, respectively. Neospora caninum DNA was found in 72.5% of the examined brain samples. Sarcocystis spp. DNA was detected in 92% and 52.2% of the heart and diaphragm samples, respectively. Sequence analysis of the Sarcocystis spp. revealed the sole presence of Sarcocystis tenella. The present study demonstrates that sheep have a high risk of infection with the three Apicomplexa investigated, suggesting the need to adopt adequate measures to prevent the spread of these parasitic infections considering their clinical and economic impact on ovine production. Furthermore, the possible role sheep play in the zoonotic transmission of toxoplasmosis to humans was highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Dessì
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Claudia Tamponi
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Cinzia Pasini
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesca Porcu
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Luisa Meloni
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Lia Cavallo
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Maria Francesca Sini
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Stephane Knoll
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Scala
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Antonio Varcasia
- Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
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Papatsiros VG, Athanasiou LV, Kostoulas P, Giannakopoulos A, Tzika E, Billinis C. Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Swine: Implications for Public Health. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2021; 18:823-840. [PMID: 34491108 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2021.0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, due to Toxoplasma gondii, is a parasitic disease with global importance. Among livestock, chronic T. gondii infection has been reported in higher rates in pigs and small ruminants, but with subclinical infections in case commonly encountered in pigs. Seroprevalence in the global pig population ranges according to the age or species of pigs, geographical distribution, production programs, and systems. Generally, T. gondii infections are noticed in low prevalence rates in conventional pig farms with high hygiene standards. In contrast, higher prevalence is common on free-ranging farms, outdoor or backyard small pig fams, as well as in farmed or hunted wild boars. The T. gondii average worldwide seroprevalence in pigs is reported to be 13% in Europe, 21% in Africa, 25% in North America, 21% in Asia, and 23% in South America. Human toxoplasmosis outbreaks have been correlated with the consumption of raw or undercooked meat, especially from infected pigs or wild boars, as well as of contaminated drinking water. The risk of infection in processed pork products is lower compared with fresh pork, as meat processing can reduce or inactivate T. gondii tissue cysts. Hence, the prevalence of T. gondii in the pig population may be a useful indicator of the risk of human toxoplasmosis associated with the consumption of pork products. The lack of obligatory screening methods at farm level for the detection of antibodies in farmed animals or the viable T. gondii in carcasses at slaughterhouse level increases the risk of contaminated pork or meat products. For this reason, the application of biosecurity and surveillance programs at farm level is very important to prevent a T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileios G Papatsiros
- Clinic of Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - Labrini V Athanasiou
- Clinic of Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - Polychronis Kostoulas
- Laboratory of Epidemiology & Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Public Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - Alexios Giannakopoulos
- Department of Microbiology & Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | - Eleni Tzika
- Farm Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Charalambos Billinis
- Department of Microbiology & Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
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6
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Meat Safety from Farm to Slaughter—Risk-Based Control of Yersinia enterocolitica and Toxoplasma gondii. Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9050815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The implementation of the traditional meat safety control system has significantly contributed to increasing food safety and public health protection. However, several biological hazards have emerged in meat production, requiring a comprehensive approach to their control, as traditional methods of meat inspection at the slaughterhouse are not able to detect them. While national control programs exist for the most important meat-related hazards, similar data are still lacking for certain neglected threats, such as Yersinia enterocolitica or Toxoplasma gondii. The obstacle in controlling these hazards in the meat chain is their presence in latently infected, asymptomatic animals. Their effective control can only be achieved through systematic preventive measures, surveillance or monitoring, and antimicrobial interventions on farms and in slaughterhouses. To establish such a system, it is important to collect all relevant data on hazard-related epidemiological indicators from the meat chain, which should provide relevant guidance for interventions at the harvest and post-harvest stage. The proposed approach is expected to improve the existing system and provide many opportunities to improve food safety and public health.
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Olsen A, Sandberg M, Houe H, Nielsen HV, Denwood M, Jensen TB, Alban L. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sows and finishers from conventional and organic herds in Denmark: Implications for potential future serological surveillance. Prev Vet Med 2020; 185:105149. [PMID: 33127169 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pigs are one of several host species for Toxoplasma gondii parasites, and consumption of infected pork may lead to toxoplasmosis in humans. We estimated seroprevalence in sows and finishers from conventional and organic herds in Denmark and discussed the strategies for reducing the risk from pork. We collected 447 blood samples from 59 herds, and additional meat-juice samples from 212 of the same pigs. Using a T. gondii IgG commercial ELISA test, we found 2% (95% CI = 0.4%-5%) apparent seroprevalence of T. gondii in conventional finishers, 11% (95% CI = 6%-17%) in organic finishers, 19% (95% CI = 11%-30%) in conventional sows and 60% (95% CI = 47%-72%) in organic sows. The odds of an animal testing positive for T. gondii was 16 times higher (95% CI = 4.6-74.3) in organic compared to conventional herds. The odds were 22 times higher (95% CI = 6.5-88.3) if the animal was a sow compared to a finisher. Meat-juice ELISA values were significantly correlated with plasma results (P < 0.001), but on average 64% of the blood-plasma ELISA values. Lowering the recommended cut-off from 20 to 13 percent positive values of the positive control for meat-juice ELISA, resulted in the meat-juice ELISA identifying 93% of the plasma positives as positive and 99% of the plasma negatives as negative. The time taken to detect one or more infected pigs from a T. gondii positive herd at slaughter was estimated using abattoir data on pigs (17,195,996) and batches (165,569) delivered to Danish abattoirs in 2018. The time to detection was affected by the seroprevalence, frequency at which the pigs were delivered, the number of samples tested per batch delivery and the batch sizes. Time to detection was long in conventional finisher herds due to low prevalence, and in sow herds because of intermittent delivery of a low number of sows. In organic finisher herds, time to detection was short due to medium prevalence and frequent delivery of a high number of finishers. Conventional finisher herds may be classified as low-risk, organic finisher herds as medium-risk, and conventional and organic sow herds as high-risk herds. Risk-mitigation strategies at processing plants (freezing or curing) or at the consumer level (heat treatment) for meat originating from high-risk herds, surveillance of medium-risk herds, and auditing for controlled housing (high biosecurity) in low-risk herds may be cost-effective alternatives to serological surveillance of all Danish pig herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbey Olsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegaardsvej 8, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark; Department of Food Safety, Veterinary Issues & Risk Analysis, Danish Agriculture & Food Council, Axelborg, Axeltorv 3, DK-1609, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Marianne Sandberg
- Department of Food Safety, Veterinary Issues & Risk Analysis, Danish Agriculture & Food Council, Axelborg, Axeltorv 3, DK-1609, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hans Houe
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegaardsvej 8, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Henrik Vedel Nielsen
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Bacteria, Parasites & Fungi, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300, Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Matt Denwood
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegaardsvej 8, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | | | - Lis Alban
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegaardsvej 8, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark; Department of Food Safety, Veterinary Issues & Risk Analysis, Danish Agriculture & Food Council, Axelborg, Axeltorv 3, DK-1609, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Dubey JP, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Murata FHA, Kwok OCH, Hill D, Yang Y, Su C. All about Toxoplasma gondii infections in pigs: 2009-2020. Vet Parasitol 2020; 288:109185. [PMID: 33271424 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs continues to be of public health concern. Pigs are important for the economy of many countries, particularly, USA, China, and European countries. Among the many food animals, pigs are considered the most important for T. gondii transmission in USA and China because viable parasites have rarely been isolated from beef or indoor raised chickens. Besides public health issues, T. gondii causes outbreaks of clinical toxoplasmosis in pigs in China, associated with a unique genotype of T. gondii (ToxoDB genotype #9 or Chinese 1), rarely found in other countries. The safety of ready to eat pork products with respect to T. gondii infection is a matter of recent debate. Here, we review in detail seroprevalence, prevalence of viable and nonviable T. gondii, epidemiology, risk assessment, diagnosis, and curing of pork products containing T. gondii for the past decade. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - Camila K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Fernando H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Oliver C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Dolores Hill
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - Yurong Yang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Chunlei Su
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA
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Fredericks J, Hawkins-Cooper DS, Hill DE, Luchansky JB, Porto-Fett ACS, Shoyer BA, Fournet VM, Urban JF, Dubey JP. Inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii Bradyzoites after Salt Exposure during Preparation of Dry-Cured Hams. J Food Prot 2020; 83:1038-1042. [PMID: 32438394 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-19-461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Foodborne pathogens continue to pose a public health risk and can cause serious illness and significant outbreaks of disease in consumers. Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease that occurs worldwide and is caused by the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. The consumption of raw or undercooked infected meat, including pork, that contains infectious stages of T. gondii has been regarded as a major route of T. gondii transmission to humans. Given the occasional presence of T. gondii in pork meat, the frequent use of pork for products not intended to be cooked, such as dry-cured ham, presents a potential risk for its transmission to consumers. In this study, we investigated the viability of T. gondii in dry-cured whole hams processed using methods that were previously required for treatment of hams to inactivate Trichinella spiralis in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (9 CFR 318.10) and are now described in guidance documents from the U.S. Food Safety and Inspection Service. Infected pork hams were salted and cured for 33 days at 3°C and 85% ± 5% relative humidity (RH) and then were dried for up to 12 months at 12°C and 67.5% ± 2.5% RH. Inactivation of T. gondii was assessed in mouse bioassays and, serologically, by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Results showed that T. gondii bradyzoites were inactivated during the salting and curing step (33 days); no viable T. gondii was detected in the mouse bioassay and no evidence of serological conversion was detected by MAT in any of the mice inoculated with any of the samples tested during the drying step over the 12 months of the experiment. These results demonstrated that the approved protocols for production of dry-cured hams validated herein can inactivate T. gondii and lower the risk to consumers of this product. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorrell Fredericks
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Diane S Hawkins-Cooper
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Dolores E Hill
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - John B Luchansky
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 19038-8598 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2377-8651 [J.B.L.]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2689-6402 [A.C.S.P.F])
| | - Anna C S Porto-Fett
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 19038-8598 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2377-8651 [J.B.L.]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2689-6402 [A.C.S.P.F])
| | - Brad A Shoyer
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 19038-8598 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2377-8651 [J.B.L.]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2689-6402 [A.C.S.P.F])
| | - Valsin M Fournet
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Joseph F Urban
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705.,U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Diet, Genomics, and Immunology Laboratory, BARC-East, Building 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Northeast Area, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Buildings 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
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Methods to assess the effect of meat processing on viability of Toxoplasma gondii: towards replacement of mouse bioassay by in vitro testing. Int J Parasitol 2020; 50:357-369. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Dubey JP, Hill DE, Fournet V, Hawkins-Cooper D, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Murata FHA, Verma SK, Kwok OCH, Rani S, Fredericks J, Adams B, Jones JL, Wiegand RE, Ying Y, Guo M, Su C, Pradhan AK. Low prevalence of viable Toxoplasma gondii in fresh, unfrozen American pasture-raised pork and lamb from retail meat stores in the United States. Food Control 2020; 109:10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106961. [PMID: 38800690 PMCID: PMC11119960 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In a national survey of fresh, unfrozen, American pasture-raised lamb and pork, the prevalence of viable Toxoplasma gondii was determined in 1500 samples selected by random multistage sampling (750 pork, 750 lamb) obtained from 250 retail meat stores from 10 major geographic areas in the USA. Each sample consisted of a minimum of 500g of meat purchased from the retail meat case. To detect viable T. gondii, 50g meat samples of each of 1500 samples were bioassayed in mice. Viable T. gondii was isolated from 2 of 750 lamb samples (unweighted: 0.19%, 0.00-0.46%; weighted: 0.04%, 0.00-0.11%) and 1 of 750 pork samples (unweighted: 0.12%, 0.00-0.37%; weighted: 0.18%, 0.00-0.53%) samples. Overall, the prevalence of viable T. gondii in these retail meats was very low. Nevertheless, consumers, especially pregnant women, should be aware that they can acquire T. gondii infection from ingestion of undercooked meat. Cooking meat to an internal temperature of 66°C kills T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Dolores E Hill
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Valsin Fournet
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Diane Hawkins-Cooper
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Camila K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Fernando H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Shiv K Verma
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Oliver C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Surabhi Rani
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Jorrell Fredericks
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Brandon Adams
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Jones
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, MS A-06 Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Ryan E Wiegand
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, MS A-06 Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Yuqing Ying
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Miao Guo
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Chunlei Su
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996. USA
| | - Abani K Pradhan
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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Djurković-Djaković O, Dupouy-Camet J, Van der Giessen J, Dubey JP. Toxoplasmosis: Overview from a One Health perspective. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2019; 15:e00054. [PMID: 32095624 PMCID: PMC7034049 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is paradigmatic of the One Health approach, as the causative parasite Toxoplasma gondii infects virtually all warm-blooded animals, including humans. This makes T. gondii one of the most successful parasites on earth, infecting up to a third of the global human population. Moreover, the T. gondii disease burden has been ranked among the highest of all parasitic diseases. To reduce the disease burden of toxoplasmosis in humans, interventions are needed in the animal reservoirs, necessitating close collaboration between both the human and veterinary medical sectors. In the present special issue of FAWPAR, several of the most pertinent topics related to the impact and control of toxoplasmosis are addressed by leading experts in the field. This collection of papers highlights state-of-the-art knowledge, gaps in knowledge and future perspectives, as well as the benefits of current and proposed future activities to tackle toxoplasmosis within the One Health context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olgica Djurković-Djaković
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Dr. Subotica 4, P.O. Box 102, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Joke Van der Giessen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jitender P. Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA
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Fredericks J, Hawkins-Cooper D, Hill D, Luchansky J, Porto-Fett A, Gamble H, Fournet V, Urban J, Holley R, Dubey J. Low salt exposure results in inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites during formulation of dry cured ready-to-eat pork sausage. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2019; 15:e00047. [PMID: 32095618 PMCID: PMC7034007 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of safe and healthy food products represents one of the main objectives of the food industry. The presence of microorganisms in meat and products containing meat can result in a range of human health problems, as well as economic losses to producers of these products. However, contaminated meat products continue to initiate serious and large-scale outbreaks of disease in consumers. In addition to outbreaks of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses, parasitic organisms, such as Toxoplasma gondii, are responsible for foodborne infections worldwide, and in the case of T. gondii, is considered the 2nd leading cause of death from foodborne illness in the U.S. Transmission of Toxoplasma gondii has historically been linked to the consumption of raw or undercooked meat products, including pork. Specific concerns with respect to pork products are ready-to-eat (RTE) pork meals. These are pork or products containing pork that are prepared by curing or drying, and are not intended to be cooked before being consumed. Previous studies have demonstrated that T. gondii is inactivated during dry cured sausage preparation, apparently in the batter during fermentation. In this study, we have analyzed timing of inactivation of T. gondii in freshly prepared pepperoni batter to confirm our previous findings, to determine how quickly inactivation occurs during fermentation, and to confirm what parameters of the sausage preparation are involved in inactivation of the parasite. Results from the current and previous study indicate that rapid inactivation of T. gondii bradyzoites occurs in low salt batter for dry cured sausage within 4 h of initiation of fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Fredericks
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
| | - D.S. Hawkins-Cooper
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
| | - D.E. Hill
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
| | - J. Luchansky
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies, 600 E. Mermaid Ln. ERRC, Wyndmoor, PA 19038-8598, United States of America
| | - A. Porto-Fett
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies, 600 E. Mermaid Ln. ERRC, Wyndmoor, PA 19038-8598, United States of America
| | - H.R. Gamble
- National Academy of Sciences, 500 Fifth Street NW, Washington, DC 20001, United States of America
| | - V.M. Fournet
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
| | - J.F. Urban
- USDA, ARS, BHNRC, Diet, Genomics, and Immunology Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
| | - R. Holley
- Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Room 250 Ellis Building, 13 Freedman Crescent, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - J.P. Dubey
- USDA, ARS, NEA, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC-East, Bldgs. 1001 & 307-C, Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America
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