Mango agro-industrial wastes for lipase production from Yarrowia lipolytica and the potential of the fermented solid as a biocatalyst

Extraction of cell wall pectins and hemicellulose from agro-industrial wastes: A sustainable alternative source

The efficient repurposing of agro-industrial waste has significantly enhanced the utilization of food resources. This study aims to propose a methodology for extracting cell wall polysaccharides from residues of mango (Mangifera indica), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), and cashew (Anacardium occidentale). Polysaccharide fractions were obtained through sequential extraction protocols involving water, cyclohexane-trans-1,2-diamine tetracetate (CDTA), sodium carbonate:CDTA, and potassium hydroxide. These fractions were categorized as water-soluble pectin (WSP), CDTA-soluble pectin (CSP), sodium carbonate-soluble pectin (SSP), and hemicellulose (HC), respectively. Each polysaccharide fraction was characterized by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). Monosaccharide composition was determined using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). NMR spectra of WSP, CSP, and SSP fractions exhibited characteristic pectin features, while the HC fraction primarily comprised hemicellulose. Consequently, the proposed methodology demonstrates potential as a standardized protocol for the extraction of pectin and hemicellulose from various food sources.

Valorization of food waste: A comprehensive review of individual technologies for producing bio-based products

BACKGROUND

The escalating global concerns about food waste and the imperative need for sustainable practices have fuelled a burgeoning interest in the valorization of food waste. This comprehensive review delves into various technologies employed for converting food waste into valuable bio-based products. The article surveys individual technologies, ranging from traditional to cutting-edge methods, highlighting their respective mechanisms, advantages, and challenges.

SCOPE AND APPROACH

The exploration encompasses enzymatic processes, microbial fermentation, anaerobic digestion, and emerging technologies such as pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing. Each technology's efficacy in transforming food waste into bio-based products such as biofuels, enzymes, organic acids, prebiotics, and biopolymers is critically assessed. The review also considers the environmental and economic implications of these technologies, shedding light on their sustainability and scalability. The article discusses the role of technological integration and synergies in creating holistic approaches for maximizing the valorization potential of food waste. Key finding and conclusion: This review consolidates current knowledge on the valorization of food waste, offering a comprehensive understanding of individual technologies and their contributions to the sustainable production of bio-based products. The synthesis of information presented here aims to guide researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders in making informed decisions to address the global challenge of food waste while fostering a circular and eco-friendly economy.

Food waste-based bio-fertilizers production by bio-based fermenters and their potential impact on the environment

Increasing food waste is creating a global waste (and management) crisis. Globally, ∼1.6 billion tons of food is wasted annually, worth ∼$1.2 trillion. By reducing this waste or by turning it into valuable products, numerous economic advantages can be realized, including improved food security, lower production costs, biodegradable products, environmental sustainability, and cleaner solutions to the growing world's waste and garbage management. The appropriate handling of these detrimental materials can significantly reduce the risks to human health. Food waste is available in biodegradable forms and, with the potential to speed up microbial metabolism effectively, has immense potential in improving bio-based fertilizer generation. Synthetic inorganic fertilizers severely affect human health, the environment, and soil fertility, thus requiring immediate consideration. To address these problems, agricultural farming is moving towards manufacturing bio-based fertilizers via utilizing natural bioresources. Food waste-based bio-fertilizers could help increase yields, nutrients, and organic matter and mitigate synthetic fertilizers' adverse effects. These are presented and discussed in the review.

Biotransformation of Raw Mango Seed Waste into Bacterial Hydrolytic Enzymes Enhancement Via Solid State Fermentation Strategy

Solid waste generation is a huge contributor to environmental pollution issues, and food wastes are prominent in this category due to their large generation on a day-to-day basis. Thus, the settlement of daily food waste is one of the major constraints and needs innovative manufacturing sheme to valorize solid waste in sustainable manner. Moreover, these food wastes are rich in organic content, which has promising scope for their value-added products. In the present study, raw mango seed waste has been biotransformed to produce bacterial hydrolytic enzymes as feedstock. On investigating the impact of substrate, the highest bacterial cellulase production was recorded to be 18 IU/gds FP (filter paper) in 24 h of microbial incubation at 5 g of substrate in solid-state fermentation (SSF). Furthermore, at 40 °C and pH 6.0, 23 IU/gds FP enzyme could be produced in 24 h of SSF. Beside this, on comparing the influence of inorganic and organic nitrogen sources, urea has been found to provide better cellulase production, which yielded 28 IU/gds FP in 24 h of incubation, along with 77 IU/gds BG (β-glucosidase) and 89 IU/gds EG (endoglucanase). On the other hand, Tween-40 and Tween-80, two different surfactants, were employed at a 1.0% concentration for 24 h of incubation. It was noticed that Tween-80 showed complete enzyme activity at 24 h, which was found to be relatively superior to that of Tween-40. This study may have potential utility in enzyme production using mango seed as a food waste for various industrial applications.

Has the time finally come for green oleochemicals and biodiesel production using large-scale enzyme technologies? Current status and new developments

With the growth of the chemical industry over the last decade, the need for cheaper (and more environmentally friendly) alternatives to petrochemicals of ever-increasing cost has grown steadily. Oleochemicals and biodiesel (OC/BD) are considered as green alternatives to petroleum derivatives, because they come from renewable oils and fats. OC/BD are currently produced by the traditional energy intensive chemical catalyzed methods, which have several economic and environmental drawbacks. For these reasons, the enzymatic production of OC/BD has attracted a growing attention for their greener pathway with respect to the chemically catalyzed processes. Lipase-catalyzed processes have a low energy requirement, since reactions are performed under atmospheric pressure and mild temperature and without the creation of side reactions. Furthermore, utilization of enzyme catalysts offers many advantages such as reducing the initial capital investment due to simplified downstream processing steps. Despite all the previous advantages, however, the high cost of lipases restricted their large-scale utilization. In the past decade, efforts have been made to reduce the cost of the enzymatic-catalyzed synthesis of OC/BD. However, most previous studies have studied only the technical feasibility of the lipase-catalyzed reactions and overlocked the economic viability. This review critically discusses the factors affecting the promotion of the economic feasibility of the enzymatic processes from the lab to large scale. These include reactor configuration, type of feedstock, conditions optimization, immobilization, lipase-producing microorganisms, and substrate diversification. In addition, this review reports the recent advances in lipase-catalyzed production of fatty acids, fatty esters, monoglycerides, and biodiesel in the lab as well as in the large-scales. To the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first review article reports the recent global progress achieved in both lab- and large-scale for the enzymatic production of OC/BD.

Aspergillus sclerotiorum lipolytic activity and its application in bioremediation of high-fat dairy wastewater environments

Oils and grease (O&G) have low affinity for water and represent a class of pollutants present in the dairy industry. Enzyme-mediated bioremediation using biocatalysts, such as lipases, has shown promising potential in biotechnology, as they are versatile catalysts with high enantioselectivity and regioselectivity and easy availability, being considered a clean technology (white biotechnology). Specially in the treatment of effluents from dairy industries, these enzymes are of particular importance as they specifically hydrolyze O&G. In this context, the objective of this work is to prospect filamentous fungi with the ability to synthesize lipases for application in a high-fat dairy wastewater environment. We identified and characterized the fungal species Aspergillus sclerotiorum as a good lipase producer. Specifically, we observed highest lipolytic activity (20.72 U g^-1) after 96 h of fermentation using sunflower seed as substrate. The fungal solid fermented was used in the bioremediation in dairy effluent to reduce O&G. The experiment was done in kinetic from 24 to 168 h and reduced over 90% of the O&G present in the sample after 168 h. Collectively, our work demonstrated the efficiency and applicability of fungal fermented solids in bioremediation and how this process can contribute to a more sustainable wastewater pretreatment, reducing the generation of effluents produced by dairy industries.

Machine Learning Models Using Data Mining for Biomass Production from Yarrowia lipolytica Fermentation

In this paper, a database of biomass production from Yarrowia lipolytica fermentation is prepared and constructed using machine learning and data mining approaches. The database is curated from 15 publications and consists of 301 rows of data with 25 predictors and 1 label. The predictors include inoculum size, temperature, pH, and time, while the label is the corresponding biomass production. The database is then divided into training, validation, and test datasets and analyzed as a supervised machine learning task for regression. Twenty-six regression models are employed and compared for their performance in predicting biomass production. The best-performing model is the Matern 5/2 Gaussian process regression model, which has the lowest root-mean-squared error of 0.75 g/L, the highest R squared of 0.90, and the lowest mean absolute error of 0.52 g/L. The t-test is used to identify the most important predictors, and 14 predictors are sufficient for creating an accurate model. These 14 predictors are fermentation time, peptone, temperature, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, shaking rate, total nitrogen, inoculum size, yeast extract, crude glycerol, glucose, oil and grease, media pH, ammonium sulfate, and olive oil. This research demonstrates the application of machine learning and data mining to estimate biomass production and gives insight into which parameters are essential for Yarrowia lipolytica fermentation.

Microencapsulation of Yarrowia lipolytica: cell viability and application in vitro ruminant diets

Microencapsulation is an alternative to increase the survival capacity of microorganisms, including Yarrowia lipolytica, a widely studied yeast that produces high-value metabolites, such as lipids, aromatic compounds, biomass, lipases, and organic acids. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the effectiveness of different wall materials and the influence of the addition of salts on the microencapsulation of Y. lipolytica, evaluating yield, relationship with cell stability, ability to survive during storage, and in vitro application of ruminant diets. The spray drying process was performed via atomization, testing 11 different compositions using maltodextrin (MD), modified starch (MS) and whey protein concentrate (WPC), Y. lipolytica (Y. lipo) cells, tripolyphosphate (TPP), and sodium erythorbate (SE). The data show a reduction in the water activity value in all treatments. The highest encapsulation yield was found in treatments using MD + TPP + Y. lipo (84.0%) and WPC + TPP + Y. lipo (81.6%). Microencapsulated particles showed a survival rate ranging from 71.61 to 99.83% after 24 h. The treatments WPC + Y. lipo, WPC + SE + Y. lipo, WPC + TPP + Y. lipo, and MD + SE + Y. lipo remained stable for up to 105 days under storage conditions. The treatment WPC + SE + Y. lipo (microencapsulated yeast) was applied in the diet of ruminants due to the greater stability of cell survival. The comparison between the WPC + SE + Y. lipo treatment, wall materials, and the non-microencapsulated yeast showed that the microencapsulated yeast obtained a higher soluble fraction, degradability potential, and release of nutrients.

Probiotic Whey-Based Beverages from Cow, Sheep and Goat Milk: Antioxidant Activity, Culture Viability, Amino Acid Contents

Recently, the demand for goat and sheep cheese has increased mainly because of its nutritional and health benefits. As a result, an enormous amount of whey from various animal species is produced as a waste/by-product. The production of functional probiotic fermented beverages from different types of whey protein concentrates (WPC) could be a good way to valorize whey. Meanwhile, reduced environmental pollution and economic sustainability will be provided. In this study, probiotic beverages enriched with 1% kiwi powder were produced from goat, sheep, and cow WPC (15%). Moreover, Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus and the probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis were used for fermentation. The results showed that WPC significantly increased the protein content and acidity of beverages (p < 0.05). Production with WPC also improved the viability of probiotic bacteria and S. thermophilus, total phenolic compound (TPC), and antioxidant activity of beverages. The highest viability of probiotic bacteria (9.67 log CFU/mL for Bb-12 and, 9.35 log CFU/mL for L. acidophilus) was found in beverages produced from goat WPC. In addition, WPC increased the free amino acid content of beverages, and the highest essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids were found in beverages produced from goat WPC as 146.19 mg/100 g and 70.31 mg/100 g, respectively (p < 0.05). Consequently, while production with goat, cow, and sheep WPC improved quality compared to the control, beverages produced from goat WPC excelled. The production of a functional probiotic beverage with goat WPC is promising for dairy technology.

Bioactive Compounds in Extracts from the Agro-Industrial Waste of Mango

Mango by-products are important sources of bioactive compounds generated by agro-industrial process. During mango processing, 35-60% of the fruit is discarded, in many cases without treatment, generating environmental problems and economic losses. These wastes are constituted by peels and seeds (tegument and kernel). The aim of this review was to describe the extraction, identification, and quantification of bioactive compounds, as well as their potential applications, published in the last ten years. The main bioactive compounds in mango by-products are polyphenols and carotenoids, among others. Polyphenols are known for their high antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Carotenoids show provitamin A and antioxidant activity. Among the mango by-products, the kernel has been studied more than tegument and peels because of the proportion and composition. The kernel represents 45-85% of the seed. The main bioactive components reported for the kernel are gallic, caffeic, cinnamic, tannic, and chlorogenic acids; methyl and ethyl gallates; mangiferin, rutin, hesperidin, and gallotannins; and penta-O-galloyl-glucoside and rhamnetin-3-[6-2-butenoil-hexoside]. Meanwhile, gallic acid, ferulic acid, and catechin are reported for mango peel. Although most of the reports are at the laboratory level, they include potential applications in the fields of food, active packaging, oil and fat, and pharmaceutics. At the market level, two trends will stimulate the industrial production of bioactive compounds from mango by-products: the increasing demand for industrialized fruit products (that will increase the by-products) and the increase in the consumption of bioactive ingredients.

Simultaneous Production and Immobilization of Lipase Using Pomegranate-Seed Residue: A New Biocatalyst for Hydrolysis Reactions and Structured Lipids Synthesis

Pomegranate-seed residue (PSR) was used in a new strategy for the simultaneous production of Yarrowia lipolytica lipase by submerged fermentation and its immobilization by adsorption. This biocatalyst—the fermented solid residue containing the adsorbed lipase (fermPSR)—was evaluated in hydrolysis reactions and in structured lipid synthesis. In shake flasks, yeast extract and urea were the best nitrogen sources for lipase production with PSR and their simultaneous use increased the lipase production even further. This result was confirmed in a 3.5-liter bioreactor, with lipase activity in an extracellular medium of 40 U/mL. A maximum reaction rate (Vmax) of 49.5 µmol/min/g, a Michaelis–Menten constant (Km) of 207 µmol/L, and a turnover number (Kcat) of 130 s−1 were determined for the new biocatalyst, fermPSR, for the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl laurate (p-NPL) into p-nitrophenol. The conversion of p-NPL into p-nitrophenol in subsequent reactions confirmed fermPSR’s potential for industrial hydrolytic reactions. The production of structured lipids from vegetable oil and free fatty acids by fermPSR evidences the versatility of this new biocatalyst.

Evaluation of pectin extractions and their application in the alkaline Maillard reaction

A 2³ factorial design was used to evaluate the influence of temperature, catalyst and time and esterification degree (DE) of pectin obtained from mango, orange and tangerine peels as well as tamarind seeds by using the acid hydrolysis method. The study showed that a high temperature positively influenced the percentage of pectin yield for the four second generation biomasses. Nevertheless, the temperature showed a greater influence in the solubility and diffusion of the acid solvent in the tamarind seed matrix, resulting a pectin recovery 32.9%. Concerning the %DE, the most statistically significant value observed was dependent on the type of biomass studied. The %DE and the nature of the pectin are determining factors in the pectin's final use, in the present work the pectin extracted was used to produce furfural, a precursor of high value chemicals. The furfural production was achieved through alkaline hydrolysis and enhanced using the Maillard reaction, reaching a maximum concentration of 71.8 g/L which represents a 42.1% increase from the alkaline hydrolysis.

Agro-Industrial Food Waste as a Low-Cost Substrate for Sustainable Production of Industrial Enzymes: A Critical Review

The grave environmental, social, and economic concerns over the unprecedented exploitation of non-renewable energy resources have drawn the attention of policy makers and research organizations towards the sustainable use of agro-industrial food and crop wastes. Enzymes are versatile biocatalysts with immense potential to transform the food industry and lignocellulosic biorefineries. Microbial enzymes offer cleaner and greener solutions to produce fine chemicals and compounds. The production of industrially important enzymes from abundantly present agro-industrial food waste offers economic solutions for the commercial production of value-added chemicals. The recent developments in biocatalytic systems are designed to either increase the catalytic capability of the commercial enzymes or create new enzymes with distinctive properties. The limitations of low catalytic efficiency and enzyme denaturation in ambient conditions can be mitigated by employing diverse and inexpensive immobilization carriers, such as agro-food based materials, biopolymers, and nanomaterials. Moreover, revolutionary protein engineering tools help in designing and constructing tailored enzymes with improved substrate specificity, catalytic activity, stability, and reaction product inhibition. This review discusses the recent developments in the production of essential industrial enzymes from agro-industrial food trash and the application of low-cost immobilization and enzyme engineering approaches for sustainable development.

Biological Approaches for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Agro-industrial By-products: A Review

Bioactive compounds can provide health benefits beyond the nutritional value and are originally present or added to food matrices. However, because they are part of the food matrices, most bioactive compounds remain in agroindustrial by-products. Agro-industrial by-products are generated in large quantities throughout the food production chain and can—when not properly treated—affect the environment, the profit, and the proper and nutritional distribution of food to people. Thus, it is important to adopt processes that increase the use of these agroindustrial by-products, including biological approaches, which can enhance the extraction and obtention of bioactive compounds, which enables their application in food and pharmaceutical industries. Biological processes have several advantages compared to nonbiological processes, including the provision of extracts with high quality and bioactivity, as well as extracts that present low toxicity and environmental impact. Among biological approaches, extraction from enzymes and fermentation stand out as tools for obtaining bioactive compounds from various agro-industrial wastes. In this sense, this article provides an overview of the main bioactive components found in agroindustrial by-products and the biological strategies for their extraction. We also provide information to enhance the use of these bioactive compounds, especially for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Lipases as Effective Green Biocatalysts for Phytosterol Esters’ Production: A Review

Lipases are versatile enzymes widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. They are green biocatalysts with a high potential for industrial use compared to traditional chemical methods. In recent years, lipases have been used to synthesize a wide variety of molecules of industrial interest, and extraordinary results have been reported. In this sense, this review describes the important role of lipases in the synthesis of phytosterol esters, which have attracted the scientific community’s attention due to their beneficial effects on health. A systematic search for articles and patents published in the last 20 years with the terms “phytosterol AND esters AND lipase” was carried out using the Scopus, Web of Science, Scielo, and Google Scholar databases, and the results showed that Candida rugosa lipases are the most relevant biocatalysts for the production of phytosterol esters, being used in more than 50% of the studies. The optimal temperature and time for the enzymatic synthesis of phytosterol esters mainly ranged from 30 to 101 °C and from 1 to 72 h. The esterification yield was greater than 90% for most analyzed studies. Therefore, this manuscript presents the new technological approaches and the gaps that need to be filled by future studies so that the enzymatic synthesis of phytosterol esters is widely developed.

Polymers as Encapsulating Agents and Delivery Vehicles of Enzymes

Enzymes are versatile biomolecules with broad applications. Since they are biological molecules, they can be easily destabilized when placed in adverse environmental conditions, such as variations in temperature, pH, or ionic strength. In this sense, the use of protective structures, as polymeric capsules, has been an excellent approach to maintain the catalytic stability of enzymes during their application. Thus, in this review, we report the use of polymeric materials as enzyme encapsulation agents, recent technological developments related to this subject, and characterization methodologies and possible applications of the formed bioactive structures. Our search detected that the most explored methods for enzyme encapsulation are ionotropic gelation, spray drying, freeze-drying, nanoprecipitation, and electrospinning. α-chymotrypsin, lysozyme, and β-galactosidase were the most used enzymes in encapsulations, with chitosan and sodium alginate being the main polymers. Furthermore, most studies reported high encapsulation efficiency, enzyme activity maintenance, and stability improvement at pH, temperature, and storage. Therefore, the information presented here shows a direction for the development of encapsulation systems capable of stabilizing different enzymes and obtaining better performance during application.

Yarrowia lipolytica as a biorefinery platform for effluents and solid wastes valorization - challenges and opportunities

Due to its physiological and enzymatic features, Yarrowia lipolytica produces several valuable compounds from a wide range of substrates. Appointed by some authors as an industrial workhorse, Y. lipolytica has an extraordinary ability to use unrefined and complex low-cost substrates as carbon and nitrogen sources, aiding to reduce the waste surplus and to produce added-value compounds in a cost-effective way. Dozens of review papers regarding Y. lipolytica have been published till now, proving the interest that this yeast arouses in the scientific community. However, most of them are focused on metabolic pathways involved in substrates assimilation and product formation, or the development of synthetic biology tools in order to obtain engineered strains for biotechnological applications. This paper provides an exhaustive and up-to-date revision on the application of Y. lipolytica to valorize liquid effluents and solid wastes and its role in developing cleaner biotechnological approaches, aiming to boost the circular economy. Firstly, a general overview about Y. lipolytica is introduced, describing its intrinsic features and biotechnological applications. Then, an extensive survey of the literature regarding the assimilation of oily wastes (waste cooking oils, oil cakes and olive mill wastewaters), animal fat wastes, hydrocarbons-rich effluents, crude glycerol and agro-food wastes by Y. lipolytica strains will be discussed. This is the first article that brings together the environmental issue of all such residues and their valorization as feedstock for valuable compounds production by Y. lipolytica. Finally, it will demonstrate the potential of this non-conventional yeast to be used as a biorefinery platform.

Waste soybean frying oil for the production, extraction, and characterization of cell-wall-associated lipases from Yarrowia lipolytica

The lipolytic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica produces cell-wall-associated lipases, namely Lip7p and Lip8p, that could have interesting properties as catalyst either in free (released lipase fraction-RLF) or cell-associated (cell-bound lipase fraction-CBLF) forms. Herein, a mixture of waste soybean frying oil, yeast extract and bactopeptone was found to favor the enzyme production. Best parameters for lipase activation and release from the cell wall by means of acoustic wave treatment were defined as: 26 W/cm2 for 1 min for CBLF and 52 W/cm2 for 2 min for RLF. Optimal pH and temperature values for lipase activity together with storage conditions were similar for both the free enzyme and cell-associated one: pH 7.0; T = 37 °C; and > 70% residual activity for 60 days at 4, - 4 °C and for 15 days at 30 °C.

Palm oil wastes as feedstock for lipase production by Yarrowia lipolytica and biocatalyst application/reuse

Palm oil production chain generates a greasy residue in the refining stage, the Palm Oil Deodorizer Distillate (PODD), mainly composed of free fatty acids. Palm oil is also used industrially to fry foods, generating a residual frying oil (RFO). In this paper, we aimed to produce lipase from palm agro-industrial wastes using an unconventional yeast. RFO_palm, from a known source, consisted of 0.11% MAG + FFA, 1.5% DAG, and 97.5 TAG, while RFO_commercial, from a commercial restaurant, contained 6.7% of DAG and 93.3% of TAG. All palm oil wastes were useful for extracellular lipase production, especially RFO_commercial that provided the highest activity (4.9 U/mL) and productivity (465 U/L.h) in 75 h of processing time. In 48 h of process, PODD presented 2.3 U/mL of lipase activity and 48.5 U/L.h of productivity. RFO_commercial also showed the highest values for lipase associated to cell debris (843 U/g). This naturally immobilized biocatalyst was tested on hydrolysis reactions to produce Lipolyzed Milk Fat and was quite efficient, with a hydrolysis yield of 13.1% and 3-cycle reuse. Therefore, oily palm residues seem a promising alternative to produce lipases by the non-pathogenic yeast Y. lipolytica and show great potential for industrial applications.

Agroindustrial Wastes as a Support for the Immobilization of Lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus: Synthesis of Hexyl Laurate

As a consequence of intense industrialization in the last few decades, the amount of agro-industrial wastes has increasing, where new forms of valorization are crucial. In this work, five residual biomasses from Maranhão (Brazil) were investigated as supports for immobilization of lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus (TLL). The new biocatalysts BM-TLL (babaçu mesocarp) and RH-TLL (rice husk) showed immobilization efficiencies >98% and hydrolytic activities of 5.331 U g^-1 and 4.608 U g^-1, respectively, against 142 U g^-1 by Lipozyme^® TL IM. High esterification activities were also found, with 141.4 U g^-1 and 396.4 U g^-1 from BM-TLL and RH-TLL, respectively, against 113.5 U g^-1 by TL IM. Results of porosimetry, SEM, and BET demonstrated BM and RH supports are mesoporous materials with large hydrophobic area, allowing a mixture of hydrophobic adsorption and confinement, resulting in hyperactivation of TLL. These biocatalysts were applied in the production of hexyl laurate, where RH-TLL was able to generate 94% conversion in 4 h. Desorption with Triton X-100 and NaCl confirmed that new biocatalysts were more efficient with 5 times less protein than commercial TL IM. All results demonstrated that residual biomass was able to produce robust and stable biocatalysts containing immobilized TLL with better results than commercial preparations.

The Potential of Selected Agri-Food Loss and Waste to Contribute to a Circular Economy: Applications in the Food, Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Industries

The food sector includes several large industries such as canned food, pasta, flour, frozen products, and beverages. Those industries transform agricultural raw materials into added-value products. The fruit and vegetable industry is the largest and fastest-growing segment of the world agricultural production market, which commercialize various products such as juices, jams, and dehydrated products, followed by the cereal industry products such as chocolate, beer, and vegetable oils are produced. Similarly, the root and tuber industry produces flours and starches essential for the daily diet due to their high carbohydrate content. However, the processing of these foods generates a large amount of waste several times improperly disposed of in landfills. Due to the increase in the world’s population, the indiscriminate use of natural resources generates waste and food supply limitations due to the scarcity of resources, increasing hunger worldwide. The circular economy offers various tools for raising awareness for the recovery of waste, one of the best alternatives to mitigate the excessive consumption of raw materials and reduce waste. The loss and waste of food as a raw material offers bioactive compounds, enzymes, and nutrients that add value to the food cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. This paper systematically reviewed literature with different food loss and waste by-products as animal feed, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products that strongly contribute to the paradigm shift to a circular economy. Additionally, this review compiles studies related to the integral recovery of by-products from the processing of fruits, vegetables, tubers, cereals, and legumes from the food industry, with the potential in SARS-CoV-2 disease and bacterial diseases treatment.

Rhizopus oryzae Lipase, a Promising Industrial Enzyme: Biochemical Characteristics, Production and Biocatalytic Applications

Lipases are biocatalysts with a significant potential to enable a shift from current pollutant manufacturing processes to environmentally sustainable approaches. The main reason of this prospect is their catalytic versatility as they carry out several industrially relevant reactions as hydrolysis of fats in water/lipid interface and synthesis reactions in solvent-free or non-aqueous media such as transesterification, interesterification and esterification. Because of the outstanding traits of Rhizopus oryzae lipase (ROL), 1,3-specificity, high enantioselectivity and stability in organic media, its application in energy, food and pharmaceutical industrial sector has been widely studied. Significant advances have been made in the biochemical characterisation of ROL particularly in how its activity and stability are affected by the presence of its prosequence. In addition, native and heterologous production of ROL, the latter in cell factories like Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Komagataella phaffii (Pichia pastoris), have been thoroughly described. Therefore, in this review, we summarise the current knowledge about R. oryzae lipase (i) biochemical characteristics, (ii) production strategies and (iii) potential industrial applications.

Turning cacay butter and wheat bran into substrate for lipase production by Aspergillus terreus NRRL-255

Cacay oil and butter were evaluated as enzymatic inducers for lipase production from Aspergillus terreus NRRL-255 by solid-state fermentation (SSF). Initially, physicochemical characteristics of agro-industrial wastes were evaluated in order to identify a potential solid substrate for lipase production. Higher water absorption index (3.65 g H₂O/g substrate), adequate mineral content, great carbon source, and nitrogen concentration were factors that influenced the choice of wheat bran as a solid substrate. Cacay butter presented the highest lipolytic activity (308.14 U g^-1) in the screening of lipid inducer. Then, the effects of lipid inducer concentration (cacay butter), temperature, pH, moisture, and fermentation time were evaluated on process performance using multivariate statistical methodology. Under optimal conditions, the highest lipase activity observed was 2,867.18 U g^-1. Regarding the lipase characterization, maximum relative activity was obtained at pH 7.0 and at 35 °C. An inhibitory effect was observed for Ca²⁺, Mn²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, and Cu²⁺ ions. Lipase activity was increased with the reduction of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) concentration and the increase of Triton X-100. Therefore, the use of wheat bran as a solid substrate combined with cacay butter demonstrated a substantial lipase production, indicating its biotechnological industrial potential.

Sustainable Animal Feed Protein through the Cultivation of YARROWIA Lipolytica on Agro-Industrial Wastes and by-Products

Proteins are essential constituents of animal feeds, which comprise mainly vegetable protein (e.g., soybean meal), which is produced and transported globally. The decoupling of protein-production and livestock-growth areas results in protein deficiencies in certain parts of the world, and in significant environmental stress. Alternative, more sustainable protein feeds are necessary to meet the increasing needs, and to decrease the environmental footprint of animal products. Yeast Single Cell Proteins (SCP), produced locally using various agro-industrial by-product streams, have significant potential as alternative animal feed protein. Particularly, Yarrowia lipolytica, an oleaginous, non-pathogenic microorganism has been characterized as a “workhorse” in biotechnological studies, drawing the attention of many researchers. The present review summarizes available resources on critical issues concerning the applicability and commercialization of Yarrowia lipolytica as an environment-friendly protein source for animal feed. It discusses the sustainability of the yeast SCP production process, it presents the recent advances concerning Yarrowia lipolytica cultivation on low-cost agro-industrial by-products, and it stresses the effects on the health and welfare of productive animals due to the inclusion of Yarrowia lipolytica in their diet. The data presented in this study should facilitate relative research advancement and the commercialization of Yarrowia lipolytica’s use as an alternative protein source/supplement for animal feeds.

Biomolecules from municipal and food industry wastes: An overview

Biological wastes generated from food and fruit processing industries, municipal markets, and water treatment facilities are a major cause of concern for Health Departments and Environmentalists around the world. Conventional means of managing these wastes such as transportation, treatment, and disposal, are proving uneconomical. The need is to develop green and sustainable technologies to circumvent this ever-growing and persistent problem. In this article, the potential of diverse microbes to metabolize complex organic rich biowastes into a variety of bioactive compounds with diverse biotechnological applications have been presented. An integrated strategy has been proposed that can be commercially exploited for the recovery of value-adding products ranging from bioactive compounds, chemical building blocks, energy rich chemicals, biopolymers and materials, which results in a self-sustaining circular bioeconomy with nearly zero waste generation and complete degradation.