Effect of various doses of deoxynivalenol on liver xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in mice

Influence of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone on the immunohistochemical expression of oestrogen receptors and liver enzyme genes in vivo in prepubertal gilts

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are often detected in plant materials used to produce feed for pre-pubertal gilts. Daily exposure to small amounts of these mycotoxins causes subclinical conditions in pigs and affects various biological processes (e.g. mycotoxin biotransformation). The aim of this preclinical study was to evaluate the effect of low monotonic doses of DON and ZEN (12 µg/kg body weight-BW-and 40 µg/kg BW, respectively), administered alone or in combination to 36 prepubertal gilts for 42 days, on the degree of immunohistochemical expression of oestrogen receptors (ERs) in the liver and the mRNA expression of genes encoding selected liver enzymes during biotransformation processes. The level of expression of the analysed genes proves that the tested mycotoxins exhibit variable biological activity at different stages of biotransformation. The biological activity of low doses of mycotoxins determines their metabolic activity. Therefore, taking into account the impact of low doses of mycotoxins on energy-intensive processes and their endogenous metabolism, it seems that the observed situation may lead to the activation of adaptation mechanisms.

Possible Mechanisms of the Interplay between Drugs and Mycotoxins-Is There a Possible Impact?

Mycotoxin contamination is a global food safety issue leading to major public health concerns. Repeated exposure to multiple mycotoxins not only has repercussions on human health but could theoretically also lead to interactions with other xenobiotic substances-such as drugs-in the body by altering their pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics. The combined effects of chronic drug use and mycotoxin exposure need to be well understood in order to draw valid conclusions and, in due course, to develop guidelines. The aim of this review is to focus on food contaminants, more precisely on mycotoxins, and drugs. First, a description of relevant mycotoxins and their effects on human health and metabolism is presented. The potential for interactions of mycotoxins with drugs using in vitro and in vivo animal experiments is summarized. Predictive software tools for unraveling mycotoxin-drug interactions are proposed and future perspectives on this emerging topic are highlighted with a view to evaluate associated risks and to focus on precision medicine. In vitro and in vivo animal studies have shown that mycotoxins affect CYP450 enzyme activity. An impact from drugs on mycotoxins mediated via CYP450-enzymes is plausible; however, an impact of mycotoxins on drugs is less likely considering the much smaller dose exposure to mycotoxins. Drugs that are CYP450 perpetrators and/or substrates potentially influence the metabolism of mycotoxins, metabolized via these CYP450 enzymes. To date, very little research has been conducted on this matter. The only statistically sound reports describe mycotoxins as victims and drugs as perpetrators in interactions; however, more analysis on mycotoxin-drug interactions needs to be performed.

Stressful Effects of T-2 Metabolites and Defense Capability of HepG2 Cells

The T-2 toxin (T-2), a mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium which belongs to group A of trichothecenes, is rapidly metabolized, and its main metabolites are HT-2, Neosolaniol (Neo), T2-triol and T2-tetraol. In this work, the antioxidant defense system of HepG2 cells against oxidative stress induced by T-2 and its metabolites was evaluated. The results obtained demonstrated that there is an overall decrease in glutathione (GSH) levels after all mycotoxins exposure. Moreover, the GSH levels and the enzymatic activities related to GSH (GPx and GST) increased with NAC pre-treatment (glutathione precursor) and decreased with BSO pre-treatment (glutathione inhibitor). The GPx activity is increased by T2-tetraol. The GST activity increased after T-2 and T2-triol exposure; however, T2-tetraol decreased its activity. Furthermore, CAT activity increased after T-2 and T2-triol; nevertheless, Neo decreased its activity. Finally, SOD activity is increased by all mycotoxins, except after T-2 exposure. So, the damage associated with oxidative stress by T-2 and its metabolites is relieved by the antioxidant enzymes system on HepG2 cells.

Dihydroartemisinin alleviates deoxynivalenol induced liver apoptosis and inflammation in piglets

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the mycotoxins that contaminate cereals and feed, thereby endangering human and animal health. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a derivative of artemisinin, has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions in addition to anti-malaria and anti-cancer. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of DHA on alleviating liver apoptosis and inflammation induced by DON in piglets. The experimental design followed a 2 (normal diet and DON-contaminated diet) × 2 (with and without supplementation of DHA) factorial arrangement. 36 weaned piglets were subjected to a 21-day experiment. Results showed that DON increased ALT activity, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-2, and reduced the levels of total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) in the serum. However, DHA decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-2, and increased the levels of TP and ALB. Also, DON decreased glutathione (GSH) content and catalase (CAT) activity, and increased methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) content. But GSH content was increased by DHA. In addition, DHA decreased DON-induced increase in apoptosis rate of hepatocytes. Furthermore, DON activated death receptor pathway to promote apoptosis by up-regulating the protein expression of FasL and caspase-3, and the mRNA expression of FasL, TNFR1, caspase-8, Bid, Bax, CYC and caspase-3. However, DHA reduced caspase-3 protein expression, as well as the mRNA expression of FADD, Bid, Bax, CYC and caspase-3. Besides, DON also activated TNF/NF-κB pathway to induce an inflammatory response by up-regulating TNF-α protein expression, and the mRNA expression of TNFR1, RIP1, IKKβ, IκBα, IL-1β and IL-8. Nevertheless, DHA reduced the mRNA expression of RIP1, IκBα, NF-κB, IL-1β and IL-6, and the protein expression of TNF-α and NF-κB. In conclusion, DHA improved DON-induced negative effects on serum biochemical parameters and inflammatory cytokine levels, hepatic antioxidant capacity, hepatic apoptosis and inflammation.

Deoxynivalenol: Mechanisms of action and its effects on various terrestrial and aquatic species

Deoxynivalenol, a type B trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species of fungi, is a ubiquitious contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. Chronic, low dose consumption of feeds contaminated with DON is associated with a wide range of symptoms in terrestrial and aquatic species including decreased feed intake and feed refusal, reduced weight gain, and altered nutritional efficiency. Acute, high dose exposure to DON may be associated with more severe symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal inflammation and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The toxicity of DON is partly related to its ability to disrupt eukaryotic protein synthesis via binding to the peptidyl transferase site of the ribosome. Moreover, DON exerts its effects at the cellular level by activating mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) through a process known as the ribotoxic stress response (RSR). The outcome of DON-associated MAPK activation is dose and duration dependent; acute low dose exposure results in immunostimulation characterized by the upregulation of cytokines, chemokines and other proinflammatory-related proteins, whereas longer term exposure to higher doses generally results in apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and immunosuppression. The order of decreasing sensitivity to DON is considered to be: swine > rats > mice > poultry ≈ ruminants. However, studies conducted within the past 10 years have demonstrated that some species of fish, such as rainbow trout, are highly sensitive to DON. The aims of this review are to explore the effects of DON on terrestrial and aquatic species as well as its mechanisms of action, metabolism, and interaction with other Fusarium mycotoxins. Notably, a considerable emphasis is placed on reviewing the effects of DON on different species of fish.

Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem and a serious threat to people's health. Most food-borne mycotoxins have strong hepatotoxicity. However, no effective methods have been found to prevent or treat Mycotoxin- Induced Liver Injury (MILI) in clinical and animal husbandry. In this paper, the molecular mechanisms and potential anti-MILI medicines of six food-borne MILI are reviewed, and their targets are predicted by network toxicology, which provides a theoretical basis for further study of the toxicity mechanism of MILI and the development of effective strategies to manage MILI-related health problems in the future and accelerate the development of food safety.

The Effect of 42-Day Exposure to a Low Deoxynivalenol Dose on the Immunohistochemical Expression of Intestinal ERs and the Activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 Genes in the Large Intestine of Pre-pubertal Gilts

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that contaminates various plant materials. Exposure to DON can disrupt hormonal homeostasis, decrease body weight gains and modulate the immune system in pigs. It can also cause diarrhea, vomiting, leukocytosis, hemorrhaging or even death. Prolonged exposure to low doses of DON can have serious health implications in mammals. This is the first in vivo study to show that per os administration of low DON doses probably contributes to specific dysfunctions in steroidogenesis processes by inducing the immunohistochemical expression of estrogen receptors alpha (ERα) in the entire gastrointestinal tract in strongly stained cells (3 points) and estrogen receptors beta (ERβ), but only in both investigated segments of the duodenum in pre-pubertal gilts. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether a NOAEL dose of DON (12 μg DON/kg BW) administered per os over a period of 42 days induces changes in the immunohistochemical expression of ER in different intestinal segments and the transcriptional activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 genes in the large intestine of pre-pubertal gilts. This is the first report to demonstrate the expression of ER, in particular ERβ, with the associated consequences. The expression of ER was accompanied by considerable variations in the activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 genes, but it supported the maintenance of a stable consensus between the degree of mycotoxin exposure and the detoxifying effect in pre-pubertal gilts.

The effect of humic acid in chronic deoxynivalenol intoxication

The most common mycotoxin found in European foodstuffs, especially unprocessed grains, is deoxynivalenol (DON), which inhibits proteosynthesis and induces oxidative stress. The sorption properties of humic acids (HA) indicate a promising potential in the reduction of mycotoxin intoxication. In an experimental biomodel lasting 35 days, we investigated the effect of a dietary supplement containing HA on the antioxidant status in the liver, heart and kidney mitochondria and in the blood plasma of rats exposed to the stress factor of orally administered DON. DON was administered at doses of 100 and 200% above the maximum tolerable daily intake (1.0 μg/kg body weight/day). We evaluated the activities of the following enzymes: superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione-S-transferase and tripeptide glutathione. Administration of DON has been shown to induce oxidative stress, the intensity of which appears to be directly dependent on the concentration of mycotoxin. Supplementation with 1% HA (10 g/kg of feed) resulted in alleviation of this stress, in which the preventive effect of HA may have been implicated partly by affecting the adsorption of DON through the GIT and limiting its bioavailability. There were also signs that it can act by actively interfering with ROS inhibition to help achieve redox homeostasis. However, there is another aspect that deserves attention, namely, the metabolism of HA. The results presented in our work suggest that the mechanism of possible metabolism occurs predominantly in the liver, including an oxidative increase in polarity and subsequent conjugation reactions mediated by the GST-GSH system.

Mechanism of deoxynivalenol-induced neurotoxicity in weaned piglets is linked to lipid peroxidation, dampened neurotransmitter levels, and interference with calcium signaling

Deoxynivalenol（DON） has broad toxicity in livestock, but we know little about its neurotoxic mechanisms. We investigated DON neurotoxicity in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus of "Duroc × Landrace × Yokshire" piglets. Control piglets were fed a basal diet, while those in low- and high-treatment groups were fed diets with 1.3 mg/kg and 2.2 mg/kg DON, respectively. After a 60 d trial, scanning electron microscopy revealed the destruction of hippocampal cell ultrastructure. As DON concentrations increased, oxidative damage also increased in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus. Norepinephrine and 5-hydroxytryptamine concentrations tended to increase, whereas dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid concentrations decreased. We also observed an increase in calcium concentration, relative mRNA expression of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), and CaMKII phosphorylation. However, calmodulin (CaM) mRNA and protein content decreased. Overall, our results suggest that DON acts through the Ca²⁺/CaM/CaMKII signaling pathway to influence cerebral lipid peroxidation and neurotransmitter levels.

Explaining combinatorial effects of mycotoxins Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in mice with urinary metabolomic profiling

Urine metabolic profiling of mice was conducted utilizing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to investigate the combinatory effect of mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) on the metabolism of the mice. Experiments were conducted by means of five-week-old mice which were individually exposed to 2 mg/kg DON, 20 mg/kg ZEN and the mixture of DON and ZEN (2 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg, respectively). The intragastric administration was applied for three weeks and urine samples were collected for metabolic analysis. Univariate and multivariate analysis were applied to data matrix processing along with respective pathway analysis by MetaMapp and CytoScape. The results showed that the combined DON and ZEN administration resulted in lower significant changes, compared to the individual mycotoxin treated groups verified by heatmap. Metabolic pathways network mapping indicated that the combined mycotoxins treated groups showed a little effect on the metabolites in most pathways, especially in glucose metabolism and its downstream amino acid metabolism. In glucose metabolism, the content of galactose, mannitol, galactonic acid, myo-inositol, tagatose was drastically down-regulated. Furthermore, the organic acids, pyruvate, and amino acids metabolism displayed the same phenomenon. In conclusion, the combined DON/ZEN administration might lead to an "antagonistic effect" in mice metabolism.

Current sights for mechanisms of deoxynivalenol-induced hepatotoxicity and prospective views for future scientific research: A mini review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) belongs to the group B trichothecenes, which are the most common mycotoxins in cereal commodities. It is very stable within the temperature range 170-350 °C, showing no reduction in its concentration after 30 min at 170 °C. This chemical property is a very dangerous factor for human and animal health. Liver is also responsible for the detoxification and formation of DON-glucuronide in both human and animals. Some studies already demonstrated that DON could induce liver damage remarkably through DON altering expressions of p53, caspase-3, caspase-7, caspase-8 and Bax in different cell lines. At the same time, other publications illustrated some opposite results. At present, a full and systematic discussion of the hepatic toxicity of DON is still lacking. Therefore, the aim of the present review is to summarize and update the prominent evidence, regarding DON effects on liver tissues and cell lines. Moreover, based on the current studies we outline some of the identified molecule targets or pathways involved in DON-induced hepatotoxicity, and put forward our opinions and suggest an hypothesis for future research. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Toxicology of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms

Mycotoxins are the most frequently occurring natural contaminants in human and animal diet. Among them, deoxynivalenol (DON), produced by Fusarium, is one of the most prevalent and thus represents an important health risk. Recent detection methods revealed new mycotoxins and new molecules derivated from the "native" mycotoxins. The main derivates of DON are the acetylated forms produced by the fungi (3- and 15-acetyl-DON), the biologically "modified" forms produced by the plant (deoxynivalenol-3-β-D-glucopyranoside), or after bacteria transformation (de-epoxy DON, 3-epi-DON and 3-keto-DON) as well as the chemically "modified" forms (norDON A-C and DON-sulfonates). High proportions of acetylated and modified forms of DON co-occur with DON, increasing the exposure and the health risk. DON and its acetylated and modified forms are rapidly absorbed following ingestion. At the molecular level, DON binds to the ribosome, induces a ribotoxic stress leading to the activation of MAP kinases, cellular cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. The toxic effects of DON include emesis and anorexia, alteration of intestinal and immune functions, reduced absorption of the nutrients as well as increased susceptibility to infection and chronic diseases. In contrast to DON, very little information exists concerning the acetylated and modified forms; some can be converted back to DON, their ability to bind to the ribosome and to induce cellular effects varies according to the toxin. Except for the acetylated forms, their toxicity and impact on human and animal health are poorly documented.

Mycotoxins: cytotoxicity and biotransformation in animal cells

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by many microfungi. Hitherto, over 300 mycotoxins with diverse structures have been identified. They contaminate most cereals and feedstuffs, which threaten human and animal health by exerting acute, sub-acute and chronic toxicological effects, with some considered as carcinogens. Many mycotoxins at low concentrations are able to induce the expression of cytochrome P450 and other enzymes implicated in the biotransformation and metabolization of mycotoxins in vivo and in vitro. Mycotoxins and their metabolites elicit different cellular disorders and adverse effects such as oxidative stress, inhibition of translation, DNA damage and apoptosis in host cells, thus causing various kinds of cytotoxicities. In this review, we summarize the biotransformation of mycotoxins in animal cells by CYP450 isoforms and other enzymes, their altered expression under mycotoxin exposure, and recent progress in mycotoxin cytotoxicity in different cell lines. Furthermore, we try to generalize the molecular mechanisms of mycotoxin effects in human and animal cells.

Feed-borne exposure to deoxynivalenol leads to acute and chronic effects on liver enzymes and histology in carp

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a frequent contaminant of feeds in aquaculture, but the consequences of this contamination have rarely been evaluated. Previous studies on carp indicated effects of DON on liver function and histology after four weeks of feeding. The present study aimed to unravel the time course of liver responses of carp to orally applied DON. Therefore, liver enzyme activities and histology have been investigated after 7, 14, 26 and 56 days of DON feeding. The acute response comprises down-regulation of biotransformation enzymes, whereas the chronic response to DON is characterised by activation of alanine aminotransferase which indicates damage to liver tissue. Examination of histological sections of liver tissue revealed that changes such as fat aggregation, vacuolisation and hyperaemia were present after 14 and 26 days of exposure to DON but not thereafter. Several enzymes involved in glutathione cycling and reduction of oxidative stress were found to be reduced after 26 and 56 days of DON feeding. The results suggest that supporting the antioxidative system, e.g. by using glutathione-enriched yeast extracts as a food additive, might be successful in preventing the effects of DON in carp. This is the basis of a fundamental hypothesis since DON contamination of fish feed leads to pronounced effects on liver histology and liver enzyme activities which may also cause changes in the normal liver metabolism of endogenous and xenobiotic compounds.

Oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity and metabolism of T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol in animals and humans: an update

Trichothecenes are a large family of structurally related toxins mainly produced by Fusarium genus. Among the trichothecenes, T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON) cause the most concern due to their wide distribution and highly toxic nature. Trichothecenes are known for their inhibitory effect on eukaryotic protein synthesis, and oxidative stress is one of their most important underlying toxic mechanisms. They are able to generate free radicals, including reactive oxygen species, which induce lipid peroxidation leading to changes in membrane integrity, cellular redox signaling, and in the antioxidant status of the cells. The mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathway is induced by oxidative stress, which also induces caspase-mediated cellular apoptosis pathways. Several new metabolites and novel metabolic pathways of T-2 toxin have been discovered very recently. In human cell lines, HT-2 and neosolaniol (NEO) are the major metabolites of T-2 toxin. Hydroxylation on C-7 and C-9 are two novel metabolic pathways of T-2 toxin in rats. The metabolizing enzymes CYP3A22, CYP3A29, and CYP3A46 in pigs, as well as the enzymes CYP1A5 and CYP3A37 in chickens, are able to catalyze T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin to form the C-3'-OH metabolites. Similarly to carboxylesterase, CYP3A29 possesses the hydrolytic ability in pigs to convert T-2 toxin to NEO. T-2 toxin is able to down- or upregulate cytochrome P-450 enzymes in different species. The metabolism of DON in humans is region-dependent. Free DON and DON-glucuronide are considered to be the biomarkers for humans. The masked mycotoxin DON-3-β-D-glucoside can be hydrolyzed to free DON in the body. This review will provide useful information on the progress of oxidative stress as well as on the metabolism and the metabolizing enzymes of T-2 toxin and DON. Moreover, the literature will throw light on the blind spots of metabolism and toxicological studies in trichothecenes that have to be explored in the future.

Organ damage and hepatic lipid accumulation in carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) after feed-borne exposure to the mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol (DON)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) frequently contaminates animal feed, including fish feed used in aquaculture. This study intends to further investigate the effects of DON on carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) at concentrations representative for commercial fish feeds. Experimental feeding with 352, 619 or 953 μg DON kg⁻¹ feed resulted in unaltered growth performance of fish during six weeks of experimentation, but increased lipid peroxidation was observed in liver, head kidney and spleen after feeding of fish with the highest DON concentration. These effects of DON were mostly reversible by two weeks of feeding the uncontaminated control diet. Histopathological scoring revealed increased liver damage in DON-treated fish, which persisted even after the recovery phase. At the highest DON concentration, significantly more fat, and consequently, increased energy content, was found in whole fish body homogenates. This suggests that DON affects nutrient metabolism in carp. Changes of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in kidneys and muscle and high lactate levels in serum indicate an effect of DON on anaerobic metabolism. Serum albumin was reduced by feeding the medium and a high dosage of DON, probably due to the ribotoxic action of DON. Thus, the present study provides evidence of the effects of DON on liver function and metabolism.

Inactivation of deoxynivalenol-contaminated cereal grains with sodium metabisulfite: a review of procedures and toxicological aspects

Both hydrothermal treatment and wet preservation of mainly deoxynivalenol (DON)-containing, Fusarium toxin (FUS)-contaminated cereal grains with sodium metabisulfite (Na2S2O5 [SBS]) were successfully demonstrated to reduce the DON contamination through formation of the sulfonated derivative of DON, termed as DON sulfonate (DONS). The wet preservation is particularly interesting from a practical viewpoint as it can be easily performed at the farm level where the cereal grains are harvested and utilized in pig feeding. This review compiles the literature with regard to the chemical characterization and the detection of DONS, technical procedures and their efficacies, toxicological aspects and toxic effects of DON, DONS and SBS, and detection of DONS, DON and further metabolites in physiological specimens of pigs.

Thioredoxin-1 contributes to protection against DON-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells

Leucocytes are susceptible to the toxic effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), which is a trichothecene mycotoxin produced by a number of fungi including Fusarium species. One mechanism of action is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). The liver is an important target for toxicity caused by foreign compounds including mycotoxins. On the other hand, little is known about the influence of the redox state on hepatocytes treated with DON. The present study investigated the effect of DON on the cytosolic redox state and antioxidative system in the human hepatoma cell line HepG2. The cell viability of human monocyte cell line THP-1 or leukemia cell line KU812 treated with 2.5 and 5 μmol/l DON were significantly reduced. However, HepG2 cells showed no toxic effects under the same conditions and did not exhibit an increased oxidative state. Further experiments showed that thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) protein levels but not glutathione increased in the cells treated with 10 μmol/l DON. In addition, the enhancement of Trx-1 content was repressed by antioxidants. These results suggest that DON-induced accumulation of Trx-1 in HepG2 cells plays one of the key roles in protection against cytotoxicity caused by DON and that the mechanism may be mediated by the antioxidant properties of Trx-1.

Deoxynivalenol and its toxicity

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of several mycotoxins produced by certain Fusarium species that frequently infect corn, wheat, oats, barley, rice, and other grains in the field or during storage. The exposure risk to human is directly through foods of plant origin (cereal grains) or indirectly through foods of animal origin (kidney, liver, milk, eggs). It has been detected in buckwheat, popcorn, sorgum, triticale, and other food products including flour, bread, breakfast cereals, noodles, infant foods, pancakes, malt and beer. DON affects animal and human health causing acute temporary nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, and fever. This review briefly summarizes toxicities of this mycotoxin as well as effects on reproduction and their antagonistic and synergic actions.

Subchronic effects of cyanobacterial cells on the transcription of antioxidant enzyme genes in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

The increasing occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic water bodies is nowadays of worldwide concern due to their ability to produce toxins such as microcystins (MCs). These cyanobacterial toxins have been shown to affect aquatic organisms such as fish, resulting in oxidative stress. Among the antioxidant enzymes, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and soluble glutathione-S-transferases (sGST) play an important role in the detoxification of MCs. In the present work tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were orally exposed to cyanobacterial cells containing MCs and non-containing MCs for 21 days. The activity and relative mRNA expression by real-time PCR of both enzymes and the GST protein abundance by Western blot analysis were evaluated in liver and kidney. Also the induction of lipid peroxidation (LPO) was assayed. MCs containing cyanobacterial cells induced an increase of LPO products in both organs, and MCs containing and MCs non-containing cyanobacterial cells altered the activity, gene expression and protein abundance of the enzymes, indicating the importance of GPx and sGST in MCs detoxification. Moreover, liver, the main organ involved in biodegradation and biotransformation, experienced an adaptative response to the toxic insult. These results show for the first time that the subchronic exposure to cyanobacterial cells causes changes in antioxidant and detoxification enzymes and that GPx and GST gene expression are good markers of these alterations in tilapia.

Influence of deoxynivalenol on NF-kappaB activation and IL-8 secretion in human intestinal Caco-2 cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxin in crops in Europe and North America. In human intestinal Caco-2 cells, DON activates the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). We hypothesized a link between DON ingestion and intestinal inflammation, and used Caco-2 cells to assess the effects of DON, at plausible intestinal concentrations (250-10,000 ng/ml), on inflammatory mediators acting downstream the MAPKs cascade i.e. activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion. In addition, Caco-2 cells were co-exposed to pro-inflammatory stimuli in order to mimic an inflamed intestinal epithelium. Dose-dependent increases in NF-kappaB activity and IL-8 secretion were observed, reaching 1.4- and 7.6-fold, respectively using DON at 10 microg/ml. Phosphorylation of inhibitor-kappaB (IkappaB) increased (1.6-fold) at DON levels <0.5 microg/ml. Exposure of Caco-2 cells to pro-inflammatory agents, i.e. 25 ng/ml interleukin-1beta, 100 ng/ml tumor necrosis factor-alpha or 10 microg/ml lipopolysaccharides, activated NF-kappaB and increased IL-8 secretion. Synergistic interactions between these stimuli and DON were observed. These data show that DON induces NF-kappaB activation and IL-8 secretion dose-dependently in Caco-2 cells, and this effect was accentuated upon pro-inflammatory stimulation, suggesting DON exposure could cause or exacerbate intestinal inflammation.

Effect of subacute oral doses of nivalenol on immune and metabolic defence systems in mice

Nivalenol (NIV) is a toxic Fusarium secondary trichothecene metabolite occurring naturally in cereal grains. In order to evaluate the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL), we tested the effects of a large array of oral doses of this toxin for responses on plasma biochemistry, the immune system and hepatic drug metabolism in mice. C57Bl6 mice received oral doses of toxin (0.014, 0.071, 0.355, 1.774 or 8.87 mg/kg bw) 3 days a week for 4 weeks. Only the highest dose of NIV induced an increase in plasma phosphate, decreases in plasma urea and immunoglobulin M and additional changes like increases in plasma alkaline phosphatase and immunoglobulin G. Interleukin 4 production was increased in cultured murine splenocytes. Regarding liver drug metabolising enzymes, the only glutathione transferase activity accepting 1-chloro-2,4-dinitro-benzene as substrate was transiently increased in mice receiving low doses (0.071 and 0.355 mg/kg bw) of NIV. Regarding the cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, no significant change was observed in ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activity whereas both methoxyresorufin and pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase activities were decreased by 38-45% for the highest dose (8.87 mg/kg bw) of NIV. However, when analysed by Western blot analysis, the protein expression of mouse P450 1a, 2b, 2c, 3a and 4a subfamilies was unchanged in animals receiving NIV. In conclusion, the NOAEL of this toxin in our study was 1.774 mg/kg bw, corresponding to an exposure to 5 ppm contaminated food. Indeed hepatotoxicity appears in the only mice treated with a five fold higher oral dose of 8.87 mg/kg bw of NIV. Such exposure levels appear to be by far higher than the maximal natural occurrence measured in European cereals, known to range from 0.34 to 1.86 ppm.

Deoxynivalenol transport across human intestinal Caco-2 cells and its effects on cellular metabolism at realistic intestinal concentrations

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin of the trichothecenes family to which human exposure levels can be high. Epidemiological studies suggest a link between DON and gastrointestinal illness. We investigated the interaction of DON with Caco-2 cells, a widely used in vitro model of the human intestinal barrier. The apical to basolateral (absorption) and basolateral to apical (excretion) transports of DON were found strictly proportional to both the initial concentration and the duration of the incubation. The absorption and excretion mean rates were similar to those of mannitol and were increased in the presence of EGTA, a calcium chelator. These data suggest that DON crosses the intestinal mucosa by a paracellular pathway through the tight junctions although some passive transcellular diffusion may not be ruled out. The DON transport was not affected by P-glycoprotein (PgP) or multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs) inhibitors. A prolonged exposure to DON provokes the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) Erk1/2, p38 and SAPK/JNK, as well as a decrease of the transepithelial resistance, suggesting that DON could trigger intestinal inflammation. These data imply that a chronic exposure to DON contaminated foods may negatively affect human health by altering the intestinal mucosa integrity and by inducing the MAPKs implicated in inflammation.