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Liu R, Ouyang J, Li L. Anti-tumor activity of beauvericin: focus on intracellular signaling pathways. Mycotoxin Res 2024:10.1007/s12550-024-00561-2. [PMID: 39289326 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-024-00561-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
Beauvericin, a Fusarium mycotoxin commonly found in feeds, particularly cereals worldwide, exhibits a wide array of biofunction. It exhibits anticancer characteristics in addition to its antiviral, antifungal and antibacterial capabilities against gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms. The mechanism underlying most of beauvericin's properties lies in its ionophoric activity. By facilitating calcium (Ca2+) flow from the extracellular space as well as its release from intracellular reservoirs, beauvericin increases intracellular free Ca2+. This elevation in Ca2+ levels leads to detrimental effects on mitochondria and oxidative stress, ultimately resulting in apoptosis and cell death. Studies on various cancer cell lines have shown that beauvericin induces apoptosis upon exposure. Moreover, besides its cytotoxic effects, beauvericin also inhibits cancer growth and progression by exerting anti-angiogenic and anti-migratory effects on cancer cells. Additionally, beauvericin possesses immunomodulatory properties, albeit less explored. Recent research indicates its potential to enhance the maturation and activation of dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells, both directly through its interaction with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and indirectly by increasing intracellular Ca2+ levels. Hence, beauvericin could serve as an adjuvant in chemoimmunotherapy regimens to enhance treatment outcomes. Given these diverse properties, beauvericin emerges as an intriguing candidate for developing effective cancer treatments. This review explores the cellular signaling pathways involved in its anticancer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoxuan Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Ouyang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Liming Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Lu J, Su D, Yang Y, Shu M, Wang Y, Zhou X, Yu Q, Li C, Xie J, Chen Y. Disruption of intestinal epithelial permeability in the Co-culture system of Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells exposed individually or simultaneously to acrylamide and ochratoxin A. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 186:114582. [PMID: 38460668 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxins and thermal processing hazards are common contaminants in various foods and cause severe problems in terms of food safety and health. Combined use of acrylamide (AA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) would result in more significant intestinal toxicity than either toxin alone, but the underlying mechanisms behind this poor outcome remain unclear. Herein, we established the co-culture system of Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells for simulating a real intestinal environment that is more sensitive to AA and OTA, and showed that the combination of AA and OTA could up-regulate permeability of the intestine via increasing LY permeabilization, and decreasing TEER, then induce oxidative stress imbalance (GSH, SOD, MDA, and ROS) and inflammatory system disorder (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-6), thereby leading a rapid decline in cell viability. Western blot, PAS- and AB-staining revealed that AA and OTA showed a synergistic effect on the intestine mainly through the disruption of tight junctions (TJs) and a mucus layer. Furthermore, based on correlation analysis, oxidative stress was more relevant to the mucus layer and TJs. Therefore, our findings provide a better evaluation model and a potential mechanism for further determining or preventing the combined toxicity caused by AA and OTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawen Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Dan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Ying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Mengni Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Yuting Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Xingtao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Qiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Chang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Jianhua Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330047, China.
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3
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Hasuda AL, Bracarense APFRL. Toxicity of the emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins: A mini-review. Toxicon 2024; 239:107534. [PMID: 38013058 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Beauvericin and enniatins, emerging mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium species, are natural contaminants of cereals and cereal products. These mycotoxins are cyclic hexadepsipeptides with ionophore properties and their toxicity mechanism is related to their ability to transport cations across the cell membrane. Beauvericin and enniatins are cytotoxic, as they decrease cell viability, promote cell cycle arrest, and increase apoptosis and the generation of reactive oxygen species in several cell lines. They also cause changes at the transcriptomic level and have immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Toxicokinetic results are scarce, and, despite its proven toxic effects in vitro, no regulation or risk assessment has yet been performed due to a lack of in vivo data. This mini-review aims to report the information available in the literature on studies of in vitro and in vivo toxic effects with beauvericin and enniatins, which are mycotoxins of increasing interest to animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lopes Hasuda
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| | - Ana Paula F R L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
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Berntssen MHG, Fjeldal PG, Gavaia PJ, Laizé V, Hamre K, Donald CE, Jakobsen JV, Omdal Å, Søderstrøm S, Lie KK. Dietary beauvericin and enniatin B exposure cause different adverse health effects in farmed Atlantic salmon. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 174:113648. [PMID: 36736876 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The extensive use of plant ingredients in novel aquafeeds have introduced mycotoxins to the farming of seafood. The emerging enniatin B (ENNB) and beauvericin (BEA) mycotoxins have been found in the novel aquafeeds and farmed fish. Little is known about the potential toxicity of ENNs and BEA in farmed fish and their feed-to-organ transfer. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) pre-smolt (75.3 ± 8.10 g) were fed four graded levels of spiked chemical pure ENNB or BEA feeds for three months, in triplicate tanks. Organismal adverse health end-point assessment included intestinal function (protein digestibility), disturbed hematology (red blood cell formation), bone formation (spinal deformity), overall energy use (feed utilization), and lipid oxidative status (vitamin E). Both dietary BEA and ENNB had a low (<∼0.01%) transfer to organs (kidney > liver > brain > muscle), with a higher transfer for ENNB compared to BEA. BEA caused a growth reduction combined with a decreased protein digestion and feed conversion rate- ENNB caused a stunted growth, unrelated to feed utilization capacity. In addition, ENNB caused anemia while BEA gave an oxidative stress response. Lower bench-mark dose regression assessment showed that high background levels of ENNB in commercial salmon feed could pose a risk for animal health, but not in the case of BEA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - P G Fjeldal
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - P J Gavaia
- Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - V Laizé
- Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - K Hamre
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - C E Donald
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - J V Jakobsen
- Cargill Aqua Nutrition Innovation Center, Dirdal, Norway
| | - Å Omdal
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - K K Lie
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
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5
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Novikov EA, Zadubrovskiy PA, Kondratyuk EY, Kryukov VY, Novikova EV, Glupov VV. Effects of the Entomopathogenic Fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium robertsii, on the Physiological and Behavioral Traits of the Northern Red-Backed Vole (Myodes rutilus, Rodentia, Cricetidae) under Stressful Conditions. BIOL BULL+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359022070123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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6
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Zhao P, Liu X, Jiang WD, Wu P, Liu Y, Jiang J, Zhang L, Mi HF, Kuang SY, Tang L, Zhou XQ, Feng L. The multiple biotoxicity integrated study in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) caused by Ochratoxin A: Oxidative damage, apoptosis and immunosuppression. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 436:129268. [PMID: 35739783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common hazardous food contaminant that seriously endangers human and animal health. However, limited study is focused on aquatic animal. This research investigated the multiple biotoxicity of OTA on spleen (SP) and head kidney (HK) in grass carp and its related mechanism. Our data showed that, dietary supplemented with OTA above 1209 μg/kg caused histopathological damages by decreasing the number of lymphocytes and necrotizing renal parenchymal cells. Meanwhile, OTA caused oxidative damage and reduced the isoforms mRNAs transcripts of antioxidant enzymes (e.g., GPX1, GPX4, GSTO) partly due to suppressing NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). OTA triggered apoptosis through mitochondria and death receptor pathway potentially by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) activation. Besides, OTA exacerbated inflammation by down-regulation of anti-inflammatory factor (e.g., IL-10, IL-4) and up-regulations of pro-inflammatory factors (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6), which could be ascribed to signaling meditation of Janus kinase / signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT). Additionally, the safe upper limits of OTA were estimated to be 677.6 and 695.08 μg/kg based on the immune-related indexes (C3 contents in the SP and LZ activities in the HK, respectively). Our study has provided a wide insight for toxicological assessment of feed pollutant in aquatic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piao Zhao
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China
| | - Wei-Dan Jiang
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Fish Nutrition and Safety Production University Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-Resistance Nutrition, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 611130, China
| | - Pei Wu
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Fish Nutrition and Safety Production University Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-Resistance Nutrition, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 611130, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Fish Nutrition and Safety Production University Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-Resistance Nutrition, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 611130, China
| | - Jun Jiang
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Tongwei Co., Ltd., Chengdu, China, Healthy Aquaculture Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Hai-Feng Mi
- Tongwei Co., Ltd., Chengdu, China, Healthy Aquaculture Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Sheng-Yao Kuang
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Academy of Animal Science, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Ling Tang
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Academy of Animal Science, Chengdu 610066, China
| | - Xiao-Qiu Zhou
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Fish Nutrition and Safety Production University Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-Resistance Nutrition, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 611130, China.
| | - Lin Feng
- Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Fish Nutrition and Safety Production University Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Disease-Resistance Nutrition, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan 611130, China.
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7
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Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins and Their Combinations on Different Cell Lines: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040244. [PMID: 35448853 PMCID: PMC9031280 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds and mainly produced by species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. They can be synthesized on the field, during harvest as well as during storage. They are fairly stable compounds and difficult to remove. Among several hundreds of mycotoxins, according to the WHO, ochratoxin A, aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, patulin, fumonisins as well as T-2 and HT-2 toxins deserve special attention. Cytotoxicity is one of the most important adverse properties of mycotoxins and is generally assessed via the MTT assay, the neutral red assay, the LDH assay, the CCK-8 assay and the ATP test in different cell lines. The apoptotic cell ratio is mainly assessed via flow cytometry. Aside from the assessment of the toxicity of individual mycotoxins, it is important to determine the cytotoxicity of mycotoxin combinations. Such combinations often exhibit stronger cytotoxicity than individual mycotoxins. The cytotoxicity of different mycotoxins often depends on the cell line used in the experiment and is frequently time- and dose-dependent. A major drawback of assessing mycotoxin cytotoxicity in cell lines is the lack of interaction typical for complex organisms (for example, immune responses).
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Chiminelli I, Spicer LJ, Maylem ERS, Caloni F. Emerging mycotoxins and reproductive effects in animals: A short review. J Appl Toxicol 2022; 42:1901-1909. [PMID: 35229323 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) are gaining increasing interest due to their wide presence especially in cereals and grain-based products. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that Fusarium mycotoxins can be implicated in reproductive disorders in animals. Of these mycotoxins BEA may affect reproductive functions, impairing the development of oocytes in pigs and sheep. Studies show dramatic inhibitory effects of BEA and ENNA on bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis. ENNs also inhibit boar sperm motility and cause detrimental effects on embryos in mice and pigs. Although little data are reported on reproductive effects of MON, in vitro studies show inhibitory effects of MON on Chinese hamster ovary cells. The present review aims to summarize the reproductive toxicological effects of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins BEA, ENNs and MON on embryo development, ovarian function, and testicular function of animals. In vitro and in vivo toxicological data are reported although additional studies are needed for proper risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Chiminelli
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - L J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | | | - F Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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9
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Søderstrøm S, Lie KK, Lundebye AK, Søfteland L. Beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin B (ENNB)-induced impairment of mitochondria and lysosomes - Potential sources of intracellular reactive iron triggering ferroptosis in Atlantic salmon primary hepatocytes. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 161:112819. [PMID: 35038498 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin B (ENNB) are emerging mycotoxins frequently detected in plant-based fish feed. With ionophoric properties, they have shown cytotoxic potential in mammalian models. Sensitivity in fish is still largely unknown. Primary hepatocytes isolated from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were used as a model and exposed to BEA and ENNB (0.05-10 μM) for 48 h. Microscopy, evaluation of cell viability, total ATP, total H2O2, total iron content, total Gpx enzyme activity, and RNA sequencing were used to characterize the toxicodynamics of BEA and ENNB. Both mycotoxins became cytotoxic at ≥ 5 μM, causing condensation of the hepatocytes followed by formation of blister-like protrusions on the cell's membrane. RNA sequencing analysis at sub-cytotoxic levels indicated BEA and ENNB exposed hepatocytes to experience increased energy expenditure, elevated oxidative stress, and iron homeostasis disturbances sensitizing the hepatocytes to ferroptosis. The present study provides valuable knowledge disclosing the toxic action of these mycotoxins in Atlantic salmon primary hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kai K Lie
- Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
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10
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Maidana LG, Gerez J, Hohmann MNS, Verri WA, Bracarense APFL. Lactobacillus plantarum metabolites reduce deoxynivalenol toxicity on jejunal explants of piglets. Toxicon 2021; 203:12-21. [PMID: 34600911 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The deterioration of food and feed stuffs and toxic intestinal effects due to fungal colonization and concomitant production of mycotoxins is an increasing concern. The development of fungi resistance to many commonly used chemical preservatives adds further alarm. Therefore, effective detoxification methods would be useful in counteracting this problem. Biotransformation/adsorption of mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria and their metabolites is a promising approach to minimize the deleterious effects of mycotoxins. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the beneficial effects of Lactobacillus plantarum metabolites in reducing deoxynivalenol intestinal toxicity. To achieve this aim, histological, morphometrical and oxidative stress analyses were performed in the intestinal mucosa of piglets exposed to deoxynivalenol alone or associated with two strains (SN1 and SN2) of L. plantarum subsp. plantarum metabolites. Metabolites were obtained after dichloromethane (D) or ethyl acetate (A) extraction. Jejunal explants were exposed to the following treatments for 2 and 4 h a) culture medium (control group); b) deoxynivalenol (DON, 10 μM); c) L. plantarum metabolites DSN1; d) L. plantarum metabolites DSN1+DON; e) L. plantarum metabolites DSN2; f) L. plantarum metabolites DSN2+DON; g) L. plantarum metabolites ASN1; h) L. plantarum metabolites ASN1+DON; i) L. plantarum metabolites ASN2; j) L. plantarum metabolites ASN2+DON. The metabolites were incubated 1 h previously to DON challenge (one and 3 h of exposure). Histological assessment showed DON-treated explants with villi fusion and atrophy, multifocal apical necrosis and cuboid or flattened enterocytes with 2 and 4 h of exposure, while LP metabolites groups individually or associated with DON remained like control. The density of goblet cells in villi and crypts was reduced in DON explants compared to control group with 2 and 4 h of exposure; on the other hand, a significant increase in this parameter was achieved in LP metabolites groups compared to DON. Morphometric evaluation showed no difference in villi height or crypts depth in any treated explants. Overall, oxidative stress response assessments showed that explants exposed to SN1 extracted with dichloromethane and ethyl acetate, and SN2 extracted with dichloromethane reduced superoxide anion production. In conclusion, L. plantarum metabolites induced beneficial effects in intestinal mucosa, reducing the toxic effects of DON on intestinal morphology and oxidative response.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G Maidana
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Campus Universitário, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Km 380, Londrina, Paraná, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - J Gerez
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Campus Universitário, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Km 380, Londrina, Paraná, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - M N S Hohmann
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy and Cancer, Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Campus Universitário, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Km 380, Londrina, Paraná, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - W A Verri
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy and Cancer, Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Campus Universitário, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Km 380, Londrina, Paraná, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - A P F L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Campus Universitário, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, Km 380, Londrina, Paraná, 86057-970, Brazil.
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Bernal-Algaba E, Pulgarín-Alfaro M, Fernández-Cruz ML. Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins Frequently Present in Aquafeeds to the Fish Cell Line RTGill-W1. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:581. [PMID: 34437452 PMCID: PMC8402477 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decades, the aquaculture industry has introduced plant-based ingredients as a source of protein in aquafeeds. This has led to mycotoxin contaminations, representing an ecological, health and economic problem. The aim of this study was to determine in the RTgill-W1 fish cell line the toxicity of fifteen mycotoxins of common occurrence in aquafeeds. To identify the most sensitive endpoint of toxicity, the triple assay was used. It consisted of three assays: alamarBlue, Neutral Red Uptake and CFDA-AM, which revealed the mitochondrial activity, the lysosomal integrity and the plasma membrane integrity, respectively. Most of the assayed mycotoxins were toxic predominantly at lysosomal level (enniatins, beauvericin, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated metabolites 15-O-acetyl-DON and 3-acetyl-DON). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 exerted the greatest effects at mitochondrial level, while fumonisins B1 and B2 and nivalenol were not toxic up to 100 µg/mL. In general, low toxicity was observed at plasma membrane level. The vast majority of the mycotoxins assayed exerted a pronounced acute effect in the fish RTgill-W1 cell line, emphasizing the need for further studies to ascertain the impact of mycotoxin contamination of fish feeds in the aquaculture industry and to establish safe limits in aquafeeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - María Luisa Fernández-Cruz
- Department of Environment and Agronomy, National Institute of Agriculture and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (E.B.-A.); (M.P.-A.)
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12
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Non-cytotoxic dosage of fumonisin B1 aggravates ochratoxin A-induced nephrocytotoxicity and apoptosis via ROS-dependent JNK/MAPK signaling pathway. Toxicology 2021; 457:152802. [PMID: 33905761 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2021.152802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisin B1 (FB1), two of the most toxicologically important mycotoxins, often coexist in a variety of foodstuff and feed in humans and animals. Because of the low content of FB1 in foodstuff and feed, alone harmfulness of FB1 is often ignored. However, it is unknown whether the lower dosage of FB1 aggravates the toxicity of other mycotoxins. In this article, we aimed to investigate the effects of the lower dosage of FB1 on OTA-induced nephrotoxicity and apoptosis, and its underlying mechanism in porcine kidney cells (PK-15). Our current study showed that the non-cytotoxic concentration of FB1 (8 μM) could enhance OTA(5 μM)-induced nephrocytotoxicity and the expression of pro-apoptosis-associated genes in PK-15 cells. We also observed that the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was increased. However, the expression of pro-apoptosis-associated genes were down-regulated when the N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a ROS scavenger, was used in our experiment. Besides, we found that the combined toxins could increase the protein expression of p-JNK instead of p-p38 and p-ERK. Pretreatment with SP600125, a JNK inhibitor, could significantly block the promotion effects of FB1 on OTA-induced nephrocytotoxicity and apoptosis. The protein expression of p-JNK was also inhibited and the promotion effects of FB1 were significantly alleviated when NAC was used. In conclusion, the non-cytotoxic dosage of FB1 could aggravate the nephrocytotoxicity and apoptosis caused by OTA via ROS-dependent JNK/MAPK signaling pathway.
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Křížová L, Dadáková K, Dvořáčková M, Kašparovský T. Feedborne Mycotoxins Beauvericin and Enniatins and Livestock Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:32. [PMID: 33466409 PMCID: PMC7824875 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several species of fungi, including the Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species. Currently, more than 300 structurally diverse mycotoxins are known, including a group called minor mycotoxins, namely enniatins, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin. Beauvericin and enniatins possess a variety of biological activities. Their antimicrobial, antibiotic, or ionoforic activities have been proven and according to various bioassays, they are believed to be toxic. They are mainly found in cereal grains and their products, but they have also been detected in forage feedstuff. Mycotoxins in feedstuffs of livestock animals are of dual concern. First one relates to the safety of animal-derived food. Based on the available data, the carry-over of minor mycotoxins from feed to edible animal tissues is possible. The second concern relates to detrimental effects of mycotoxins on animal health and performance. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the relation of minor mycotoxins to livestock animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila Křížová
- Department of Animal Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic;
| | - Kateřina Dadáková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
| | - Michaela Dvořáčková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
| | - Tomáš Kašparovský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
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Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110686. [PMID: 33138307 PMCID: PMC7693699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.
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Mwihia EW, Lyche JL, Mbuthia PG, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Gathumbi JK, Maina JG, Eshitera EE, Eriksen GS. Co-Occurrence and Levels of Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds in Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E627. [PMID: 33008105 PMCID: PMC7600487 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study determined the presence, levels and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in fish feeds in Kenya. Seventy-eight fish feeds and ingredients were sampled from fish farms and fish feed manufacturing plants and analysed for 40 mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine (73%) mycotoxins were identified with 76 (97%) samples testing positive for mycotoxins presence. Mycotoxins with the highest prevalences were enniatin B (91%), deoxynivalenol (76%) and fumonisin B1 (54%) while those with the highest maximum levels were sterigmatocystin (<30.5-3517.1 µg/kg); moniliformin (<218.9-2583.4 µg/kg) and ergotamine (<29.3-1895.6 µg/kg). Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 68 (87%) samples. Correlations were observed between the fumonisins; enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Fish dietary exposure estimates ranged between <0.16 and 43.38 µg/kg body weight per day. This study shows evidence of mycotoxin presence and co-occurrence in fish feeds and feed ingredients in Kenya. Fish exposure to these levels of mycotoxins over a long period of time may lead to adverse health effects due to their possible additive, synergistic or antagonist toxic effects. Measures to reduce fish feed mycotoxin contamination should be taken to avoid mycotoxicosis in fish and subsequently in humans and animals through residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evalyn Wanjiru Mwihia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Egerton 20115, Kenya
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Jan Ludvig Lyche
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Paul Gichohi Mbuthia
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Lada Ivanova
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - James K. Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Joyce G. Maina
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya;
| | - Eric Emali Eshitera
- Department of Animal Health and Production, School of Natural Resource and Animal Sciences, Maasai Mara University, P.O. Box 861, Narok 20500, Kenya;
| | - Gunnar Sundstøl Eriksen
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
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Taroncher M, Pigni MC, Diana MN, Juan-García A, Ruiz MJ. Does low concentration mycotoxin exposure induce toxicity in HepG2 cells through oxidative stress? Toxicol Mech Methods 2020; 30:417-426. [PMID: 32306886 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2020.1757000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether exposure to low concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T-2) and patulin (PAT) in a human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2) exerts toxic effects through mechanisms related to oxidative stress, and how cells deal with such exposure. Cell viability was determined by the MTT and protein content (PC) assays over 24, 48 and 72 h. The IC50 values detected ranged from >10 to 2.53 ± 0.21 μM (DON), 0.050 ± 0.025 to 0.034 ± 0.007 μM (T-2) and 2.66 ± 0.66 to 1.17 ± 0.21 µM (PAT). The key players in oxidative stress are the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) dysfunction. The results obtained showed that PAT, DON and T-2 did not significantly increase LPO or ROS production with respect to the controls. Moreover, PAT and DON did not alter MMP, though T-2 increased MMP at the higher concentrations tested (17 and 34 nM). In conclusion, the exposure of HepG2 cells to nontoxic concentrations of T-2 condition them against subsequent cellular oxidative conditions induced by even higher concentrations of mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Chiari Pigni
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Natalia Diana
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Jose Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Mastrorocco A, Martino NA, Marzano G, Lacalandra GM, Ciani E, Roelen BAJ, Dell'Aquila ME, Minervini F. The mycotoxin beauvericin induces oocyte mitochondrial dysfunction and affects embryo development in the juvenile sheep. Mol Reprod Dev 2019; 86:1430-1443. [PMID: 31410935 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.23256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is a mycotoxin produced by Beauveria bassiana and Fusarium species recently reported as toxic on porcine oocyte maturation and embryo development. The aim of this study was to assess, in the juvenile sheep, whether its effects are due to alterations of oocyte and/or embryo bioenergetic/oxidative status. Cumulus-oocyte-complexes (COCs) were exposed to BEA during in vitro maturation (IVM), evaluated for cumulus cell (CC) apoptosis, oocyte maturation and bioenergetic/oxidative status or subjected to in vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo culture (IVEC). Oocyte nuclear maturation and embryo development were assessed after Hoechst staining and CC apoptosis was analysed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-End labeling assay and chromatin morphology after Hoechst staining by epifluorescence microscopy. Oocyte and blastocyst bioenergetic/oxidative status were assessed by confocal microscopy after mitochondria and reactive oxygen species labelling with specific probes. BEA showed various toxic effects, that is, short-term effects on somatic and germinal compartment of the COC (CCs and the oocyte) and long-term carry-over effects on developing embryos. In detail, at 5 µM, it significantly reduced oocyte maturation and immature oocytes showed increased late-stage (Type C) CC apoptosis and DNA fragmentation while matured oocytes showed unaffected CC viability but abnormal mitochondrial distribution patterns. At lower tested concentrations (3-0.5 µM), BEA did not affect oocyte maturation, but matured oocytes showed reduced mitochondrial activity. At low concentrations, BEA impaired embryo developmental capacity and blastocyst quality after IVF and IVEC. In conclusion, in the juvenile sheep, COC exposure to BEA induces CC apoptosis and oocyte mitochondrial dysfunction with negative impact on embryo development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Mastrorocco
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - Nicola Antonio Martino
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Marzano
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Elena Ciani
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - Bernard A J Roelen
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maria Elena Dell'Aquila
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - Fiorenza Minervini
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Bari, Italy
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Molina A, Chavarría G, Alfaro-Cascante M, Leiva A, Granados-Chinchilla F. Mycotoxins at the Start of the Food Chain in Costa Rica: Analysis of Six Fusarium Toxins and Ochratoxin A between 2013 and 2017 in Animal Feed and Aflatoxin M 1 in Dairy Products. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E312. [PMID: 31159287 PMCID: PMC6628313 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites, produced by fungi of genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium (among others), which produce adverse health effects on humans and animals (carcinogenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive). In addition, mycotoxins negatively affect the productive parameters of livestock (e.g., weight, food consumption, and food conversion). Epidemiological studies are considered necessary to assist stakeholders with the process of decision-making regarding the control of mycotoxins in processing environments. This study addressed the prevalence in feed ingredients and compound feed of eight different types of toxins, including metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. (Deoxynivalenol/3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, T-2/HT-2 toxins, zearalenone and fumonisins) and two additional toxins (i.e., ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1)) from different fungal species, for over a period of five years. On the subject of Fusarium toxins, higher prevalences were observed for fumonisins (n = 80/113, 70.8%) and DON (n = 212/363, 58.4%), whereas, for OTA, a prevalence of 40.56% was found (n = 146/360). In the case of raw material, mycotoxin contamination exceeding recommended values were observed in cornmeal for HT-2 toxin (n = 3/24, 12.5%), T-2 toxin (n = 3/61, 4.9%), and ZEA (n = 2/45, 4.4%). In contrast, many compound feed samples exceeded recommended values; in dairy cattle feed toxins such as DON (n = 5/147, 3.4%), ZEA (n = 6/150, 4.0%), T-2 toxin (n = 10/171, 5.9%), and HT-2 toxin (n = 13/132, 9.8%) were observed in high amounts. OTA was the most common compound accompanying Fusarium toxins (i.e., 16.67% of co-occurrence with ZEA). This study also provided epidemiological data for AFM1 in liquid milk. The outcomes unveiled a high prevalence of contamination (i.e., 29.6-71.1%) and several samples exceeding the regulatory threshold. Statistical analysis exposed no significant climate effect connected to the prevalence of diverse types of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Molina
- Centro de Investigación en Nutrición Animal (CINA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
- Escuela de Zootecnia, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Guadalupe Chavarría
- Centro de Investigación en Nutrición Animal (CINA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Margarita Alfaro-Cascante
- Centro de Investigación en Nutrición Animal (CINA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Astrid Leiva
- Centro de Investigación en Nutrición Animal (CINA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Fabio Granados-Chinchilla
- Centro de Investigación en Nutrición Animal (CINA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
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