Bone morphogenetic protein 4 promotes mammalian oogonial stem cell differentiation via Smad1/5/8 signaling

Fertility Preservation in BRCA1/2 Germline Mutation Carriers: An Overview

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations are responsible for a higher incidence of breast and ovarian cancer (from 55% up to 70% vs. 12% in the general population). If their functions have been widely investigated in the onset of these malignancies, still little is known about their role in fertility impairment. Cancer patients treated with antineoplastic drugs can be susceptible to their gonadotoxicity and, in women, some of them can induce apoptotic program in premature ovarian follicles, progressive depletion of ovarian reserve and, consequently, cancer treatment-related infertility (CTRI). BRCA variants seem to be associated with early infertility, thus accelerating treatment impairment of ovaries and making women face the concrete possibility of an early pregnancy. In this regard, fertility preservation (FP) procedures should be discussed in oncofertility counseling-from the first line of prevention with risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy (RRSO) to the new experimental ovarian stem cells (OSCs) model as a new way to obtain in vitro-differentiated oocytes, several techniques may represent a valid option to BRCA-mutated patients. In this review, we revisit knowledge about BRCA involvement in lower fertility, pregnancy feasibility, and the fertility preservation (FP) options available.

Innovative Strategies for Fertility Preservation in Female Cancer Survivors: New Hope from Artificial Ovary Construction and Stem Cell-Derived Neo-Folliculogenesis

Recent advances in anticancer treatment have significantly improved the survival rate of young females; unfortunately, in about one third of cancer survivors the risk of ovarian insufficiency and infertility is still quite relevant. As the possibility of becoming a mother after recovery from a juvenile cancer is an important part of the quality of life, several procedures to preserve fertility have been developed: ovarian surgical transposition, induction of ovarian quiescence by gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH-a) treatment, and oocyte and/or ovarian cortical tissue cryopreservation. Ovarian tissue cryostorage and allografting is a valuable technique that applies even to prepubertal girls; however, some patients cannot benefit from it due to the high risk of reintroducing cancer cells during allograft in cases of ovary-metastasizing neoplasias, such as leukemias or NH lymphomas. Innovative techniques are now under investigation, as in the construction of an artificial ovary made of isolated follicles inserted into an artificial matrix scaffold, and the use of stem cells, including ovarian stem cells (OSCs), to obtain neo-folliculogenesis and the development of fertilizable oocytes from the exhausted ovarian tissue. This review synthesizes and discusses these innovative techniques, which potentially represent interesting strategies in oncofertility programs and a new hope for young female cancer survivors.

Non-neutral clonal selection and its potential role in mammalian germline stem cell dysfunction with advancing age

The concept of natural selection, or "survival of the fittest", refers to an evolutionary process in nature whereby traits emerge in individuals of a population through random gene alterations that enable those individuals to better adapt to changing environmental conditions. This genetic variance allows certain members of the population to gain an advantage over others in the same population to survive and reproduce in greater numbers under new environmental pressures, with the perpetuation of those advantageous traits in future progeny. Here we present that the behavior of adult stem cells in a tissue over time can, in many respects, be viewed in the same manner as evolution, with each stem cell clone being representative of an individual within a population. As stem cells divide or are subjected to cumulative oxidative damage over the lifespan of the organism, random genetic alterations are introduced into each clone that create variance in the population. These changes may occur in parallel to, or in response to, aging-associated changes in microenvironmental cues perceived by the stem cell population. While many of these alterations will be neutral or silent in terms of affecting cell function, a small fraction of these changes will enable certain clones to respond differently to shifts in microenvironmental conditions that arise with advancing age. In some cases, the same advantageous genetic changes that support survival and expansion of certain clones over others in the population (viz. non-neutral competition) could be detrimental to the downstream function of the differentiated stem cell descendants. In the context of the germline, such a situation would be devastating to successful propagation of the species across generations. However, even within a single generation, the “evolution” of stem cell lineages in the body over time can manifest into aging-related organ dysfunction and failure, as well as lead to chronic inflammation, hyperplasia, and cancer. Increased research efforts to evaluate stem cells within a population as individual entities will improve our understanding of how organisms age and how certain diseases develop, which in turn may open new opportunities for clinical detection and management of diverse pathologies.

Pathogenesis and treatment of wound healing in patients with diabetes after tooth extraction

Diabetes mellitus is a common systematic chronic disease amongst dental patients. The elevated glucose microenvironment can prolong the healing of tooth extraction sockets. Therefore, the promotion of healing up tooth extraction sockets is of great clinical importance to the patients with diabetes mellitus. The current evidence indicates the mechanism of the recovery period of extraction sockets in hyperglycaemia conditions from physiological, inflammation, immune, endocrine and neural aspects. New advancements have been made in varied curative approaches and drugs in the management of wound healing of tooth extraction sockets in diabetes. However, most of the interventions are still in the stage of animal experiments, and whether it can be put into clinical application still needs further explorations. Specifically, our work showed topical administration of plasma-rich growth factor, advanced platelet-rich fibrin, leukocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin and hyaluronic acid as well as maxillary immediate complete denture is regarded as a promising approach for clinical management of diabetic patients requiring extractions. Overall, recent studies present a blueprint for new advances in novel and effective approaches for this worldwide health ailment and tooth extraction sockets healing.

The Role of BMP Signaling in Female Reproductive System Development and Function

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are a group of multifunctional growth factors that belong to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily of proteins. Originally identified by their ability to induce bone formation, they are now known as essential signaling molecules that regulate the development and function of the female reproductive system (FRS). Several BMPs play key roles in aspects of reproductive system development. BMPs have also been described to be involved in the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into reproductive system tissues or organoids. The role of BMPs in the reproductive system is still poorly understood and the use of FRS tissue or organoids generated from hPSCs would provide a powerful tool for the study of FRS development and the generation of new therapeutic perspectives for the treatment of FRS diseases. Therefore, the aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about BMP signaling in FRS development and function.

Biomechanical Strain Promotes the Differentiation of Murine Oogonial Stem Cells

Cells within tissues are routinely subjected to physiological stress and strain, arising from direct interactions with neighboring cells as well as with extracellular matrix components. Accordingly, there is tremendous interest in deciphering how cells sense, and respond to, changes in biomechanical forces. In this study, we explored the effects of mechanostimulation on the differentiation of mouse female germline or oogonial stem cells (OSCs) as a model for adult stem cell function. We report that increasing levels, or repeated application of a subthreshold fixed level, of radial strain to OSCs in culture significantly increased rates of in vitro oocyte formation as a measure of stem cell differentiation. These responses involved changes in F-actin-mediated cytoskeletal tension as well as in activation of intracellular signaling by Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) and Yes-associated protein (YAP) phosphorylation. In addition, application of mechanical strain to OSCs enhanced association of YAP with muscle-specific cytidine-adenosine-thymidine (MCAT) response elements in the promoter stimulated by retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8), the transcriptional activation of which is required for germline meiotic commitment. These data indicate that biomechanical strain directly promotes the differentiation of adult female germline stem cells through a signaling pathway involving F-actin, ROCK, YAP, and Stra8.

Formation of autotriploid Carassius auratus and its fertility-related genes analysis

Background

Formation of triploid organism is useful in genetics and breeding. In this study, autotriploid Carassius auratus (3nRR, 3n = 150) was generated from Carassius auratus red var. (RCC, 2n = 100) (♀) and autotetraploid Carassius auratus (4nRR, 4n = 200) (♂). The female 3nRR produced haploid, diploid and triploid eggs, whereas the male 3nRR was infertile. The aim of the present study was to explore fertility of potential candidate genes of 3nRR.

Results

Gonadal transcriptome profiling of four groups (3 females RCC (FRCC), 3 males 4nRR (M4nRR), 3 males 3nRR (M3nRR) and 3 females 3nRR (F3nRR)) was performed using RNA-SEq. A total of 78.90 Gb of clean short reads and 24,262 differentially expressed transcripts (DETs), including 20,155 in F3nRR vs. FRCC and 4,107 in M3nRR vs. M4nRR were identified. A total of 106 enriched pathways were identified through KEGG enrichment analysis. Out of the enriched pathways, 44 and 62 signalling pathways were identified in F3nRR vs. FRCC and M3nRR vs. M4nRR, respectively. A total of 80 and 25 potential candidate genes for fertility-related in F3nRR and M3nRR were identified, respectively, through GO, KEGG analyses and the published literature. Moreover, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network construction of these fertility-associated genes were performed. Analysis of the PPI networks showed that 6 hub genes (MYC, SOX2, BMP4, GATA4, PTEN and BMP2) were involved in female fertility of F3nRR, and 2 hub genes (TP53 and FGF2) were involved in male sterility of M3nRR.

Conclusions

Establishment of autotriploid fish offers an ideal model to study reproductive traits of triploid fish. RNA-Seq data revealed 6 genes, namely, MYC, SOX2, BMP4, GATA4, PTEN and BMP2, involved in the female fertility of the F3nRR. Moreover, 2 genes, namely, TP53 and FGF2, were related to the male sterility of the M3nRR. These findings provide information on reproduction and breeding in triploid fish.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07753-5.

The Role of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 in Ovarian Function and Diseases

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are the largest subfamily of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily. BMP4 is a secreted protein that was originally identified due to its role in bone and cartilage development. Over the past decades, extensive literature has indicated that BMP4 and its receptors are widely expressed in the ovary. Dysregulation of BMP4 expression may play a vital role in follicular development, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and ovarian cancer. In this review, we summarized the expression pattern of BMP4 in the ovary, focused on the role of BMP4 in follicular development and steroidogenesis, and discussed the role of BMP4 in ovarian diseases such as polycystic ovary syndrome and ovarian cancer. Some studies have shown that the expression of BMP4 in the ovary is spatiotemporal and species specific, but the effects of BMP4 seem to be similar in follicular development of different species. In addition, BMP4 is involved in the development of hyperandrogenemia in PCOS and drug resistance in ovarian cancer, but further research is still needed to clarify the specific mechanisms.

BMP4-mediated autophagy is involved in the metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma via JNK/Beclin1 signaling

The role of autophagy in tumor development is complicated. More signaling mechanisms of bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) involving in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are needed to be clarified. The present study aimed to identify whether BMP4 contributes to the regulation of autophagy in the progression of HCC. We found that increased BMP4 expression was significantly correlated with TNM stage and metastasis. BMP4 treatment promoted HCC cells invasion and induced autophagy. Blocking autophagy by 3-MA or silenced Beclin1 attenuated BMP4-induced autophagy and cell invasion. Further study revealed that JNK/Beclin1 pathway participated in the process of autophagy and JNK inhibitor SP600125 could attenuate autophagy and reduce the invasive ability of HCC cells induced by BMP4. In a word, BMP4-induced autophagy facilitates invasion of HCC by JNK/Beclin1 signaling pathway.

Effect of the Abnormal Expression of BMP-4 in the Blood of Diabetic Patients on the Osteogenic Differentiation Potential of Alveolar BMSCs and the Rescue Effect of Metformin: A Bioinformatics-Based Study

The success rate of oral implants is lower in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients than in nondiabetic subjects; functional impairment of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) is an important underlying cause. Many factors in the blood can act on BMSCs to regulate their biological functions and influence implant osseointegration, but which factors play important negative roles in T2DM patients is still unclear. This study is aimed at screening differentially expressed genes in the blood from T2DM and nondiabetic patients, identifying which genes impact the osteogenic differentiation potential of alveolar BMSCs in T2DM patients, exploring drug intervention regimens, and providing a basis for improving implant osseointegration. Thus, a whole-blood gene expression microarray dataset (GSE26168) of T2DM patients and nondiabetic controls was analyzed. Based on Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) results, differentially expressed genes and signaling pathways related to BMSC osteogenic differentiation were screened, and major risk genes were extracted based on the mean decrease Gini coefficient calculated using the random forest method. Bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP-4), with significantly low expression in T2DM blood, was identified as the most significant factor affecting BMSC osteogenic differentiation potential. Subsequently, metformin, a first-line clinical drug for T2DM treatment, was found to improve the osteogenic differentiation potential of BMSCs from T2DM patients via the BMP-4/Smad/Runx2 signaling pathway. These results demonstrate that low BMP-4 expression in the blood of T2DM patients significantly hinders the osteogenic function of BMSCs and that metformin is effective in counteracting the negative impact of BMP-4 deficiency.

Estrogen regulation of germline stem cell differentiation as a mechanism contributing to female reproductive aging

Progressive loss of ovarian estrogen (E2) production is a hallmark feature of, if not a driving force behind, reproductive aging and the menopause. Recent genetic studies in mice have shown that female germline or oogonial stem cells (OSCs) contribute to maintenance of adult ovarian function and fertility under physiological conditions through support of de-novo oogenesis. Here we show that mouse OSCs express E2 receptor-α (ERα). In the presence of E2, ERα interacts with the stimulated by retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8) promoter to drive Stra8 expression followed by oogenesis. Treatment of mice with E2 in vivo increases Stra8 expression and oogenesis, and these effects are nullified by ERα (Esr1), but not ERβ (Esr2), gene disruption. Although mice lacking ERα are born with a normal quota of oocytes, ERα-deficient females develop premature ovarian insufficiency in adulthood due to impaired oogenesis. Lastly, mice treated with reversible ER antagonists show a loss of Stra8 expression and oocyte numbers; however, both endpoints rebound to control levels after ceasing drug treatment. These findings establish a key physiological role for E2-ERα signaling in promoting OSC differentiation as a potential mechanism to maintain adequate numbers of ovarian follicles during reproductive life.

Basal characterization and in vitro differentiation of putative stem cells derived from the adult mouse ovary

Lately, stem cell approaches have provided new information on reproductive organ function and additionally recommended novel treatment possibilities. The type(s) and differentiation potential of stem cells present in the mammalian ovary are largely unknown; while oogonial stem cells have been reported, we explored the possibility that multipotent stem cells may reside in the ovary and have wide differentiation potential. In this experimental study, homogenates of whole mouse ovaries were sorted using the stem cell surface markers stem cell antigen-1 and stage specific embryonic antigen-1/CD15. Viable double-positive cells 3-10 μm in diameter were evaluated immediately after sorting and after culture using differentiation conditions. Ovarian-derived stem cells were differentiated into the three main cell types: adipocytes, chondrocytes, or osteocytes. The subsequent culture was performed in media containing bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4) and/or retinoic acid (RA). RA, BMP-4 or the two agents in combination, consistently stimulated germ cell gene expression. RA treatment strongly stimulated germline gene expression and also the development of cells that were morphologically reminiscent of oocytes. The germ cell genes Dazl, Ddx4, Figla, Gdf-9, Nobox, Prdm9, and Sycp-1 were all detected at low levels. Remarkably, treatment with BMP-4 alone significantly increased protein expression of the granulosa cell product anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). We have shown that an inclusive isolation protocol results in the consistent derivation of multipotent stem cells from the adult ovary; these cells can be differentiated towards the germ cell fate (RA alone), somatic ovarian cell fate as indicated by AMH production (BMP-4 alone), or classical mesenchymal cell types. Taken together, these data suggest the presence of multipotent mesenchymal stem cells in the murine ovary.

Molecular characteristics of early-stage female germ cells revealed by RNA sequencing of low-input cells and analysis of genome-wide DNA methylation

High-throughput stage-specific transcriptomics provides an unbiased approach for understanding the process of cell development. Here, we report transcriptome analysis of primordial germ cell, female germline stem cell (FGSC), germinal vesicle and mature oocyte by performing RNA sequencing of freshly isolated cells in mice. As expected, these stages and gene-expression profiles are consistent with developmental timing. Analysis of genome-wide DNA methylation during female germline development was used for confirmation. By pathway analysis and blocking experiments, we demonstrate PI3K-AKT pathway is critical for FGSC maintenance. We also identify functional modules with hub genes and lncRNAs, which represent candidates for regulating FGSC self-renewal and differentiation. Remarkably, we note alternative splicing patterns change dramatically during female germline development, with the highest occurring in FGSCs. These findings are invaluable resource for dissecting the molecular pathways and processes into oogenesis and will be wider applications for other types of stem cell research.

GAS5/miR-21 Axis as a Potential Target to Rescue ZCL-082-Induced Autophagy of Female Germline Stem Cells In Vitro

Several studies have recently revealed the regulatory mechanisms underlying female germline stem cell (FGSC) differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis, but other biological processes such as autophagy and its mechanism in FGSCs are largely unclear. The use of small chemical compounds may be a good approach to further investigate the process and mechanism of autophagy in FGSC development. In this study, we used ZCL-082, a derivative of benzoxaboroles, to treat FGSCs. Using a cell counting kit-8 (CCK8) and 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) assays, we found that ZCL-082 could significantly reduce the viability, proliferation, and number of FGSCs in vitro. Moreover, western blotting revealed that the expression of light chain 3 beta 2 (LC3B-II) in FGSCs was significantly increased after treatment with ZCL-082 for 3 and 6 h. Meanwhile, the expression of sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1) was significantly decreased. These results suggested that ZCL-082 can induce autophagy of FGSCs in vitro. Regarding the molecular mechanism, ZCL-082 could significantly reduce the expression of growth arrest-specific 5 (GAS5) long non-coding RNA, which could directly bind to microRNA-21a (miR-21a) and negatively regulate each other in FGSCs. Knockdown of GAS5 induced the autophagy of FGSCs, while GAS5 overexpression inhibited the autophagy of FGSCs in vitro and rescued FGSC autophagy induced by ZCL-082. Additionally, overexpression of miR-21a significantly enhanced LC3B-II protein expression while significantly reducing the expression of programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4) and SQSTM1 protein in FGSCs compared with control cells. The inhibition of miR-21a significantly reduced the basal or ZCL-082-induced upregulated expression of LC3B-II, and it significantly enhanced the expression of PDCD4 while downregulating the basal or ZCL-082-induced expression of SQSTM1 in FGSCs. Furthermore, the overexpression of GAS5 enhanced the protein expression of PDCD4, but knockdown of GAS5 reduced the protein expression of PDCD4. Taken together, these results suggested that ZCL-082 induced autophagy through GAS5 functioning as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) sponge for miR-21a in FGSCs. It also suggested that the GAS5/miR-21a axis may be a potential therapeutic target for premature ovarian failure in the clinic.

Autologous activated platelet-rich plasma injection into adult human ovary tissue: molecular mechanism, analysis, and discussion of reproductive response

In clinical infertility practice, one intractable problem is low (or absent) ovarian reserve which in turn reflects the natural oocyte depletion associated with advancing maternal age. The number of available eggs has been generally thought to be finite and strictly limited, an entrenched and largely unchallenged tenet dating back more than 50 years. In the past decade, it has been suggested that renewable ovarian germline stem cells (GSCs) exist in adults, and that such cells may be utilized as an oocyte source for women seeking to extend fertility. Currently, the issue of whether mammalian females possess such a population of renewable GSCs remains unsettled. The topic is complex and even agreement on a definitive approach to verify the process of 'ovarian rescue' or 're-potentiation' has been elusive. Similarities have been noted between wound healing and ovarian tissue repair following capsule rupture at ovulation. In addition, molecular signaling events which might be necessary to reverse the effects of reproductive ageing seem congruent with changes occurring in tissue injury responses elsewhere. Recently, clinical experience with such a technique based on autologous activated platelet-rich plasma (PRP) treatment of the adult human ovary has been reported. This review summarizes the present state of understanding of the interaction of platelet-derived growth factors with adult ovarian tissue, and the outcome of human reproductive potential following PRP treatment.

Extracellular Localisation of the C-Terminus of DDX4 Confirmed by Immunocytochemistry and Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting

Putative oogonial stem cells (OSCs) have been isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) from adult human ovarian tissue using an antibody against DEAD-box helicase 4 (DDX4). DDX4 has been reported to be germ cell specific within the gonads and localised intracellularly. White et al. (2012) hypothesised that the C-terminus of DDX4 is localised on the surface of putative OSCs but is internalised during the process of oogenesis. This hypothesis is controversial since it is assumed that RNA helicases function intracellularly with no extracellular expression. To determine whether the C-terminus of DDX4 could be expressed on the cell surface, we generated a novel expression construct to express full-length DDX4 as a DsRed2 fusion protein with unique C- and N-terminal epitope tags. DDX4 and the C-terminal myc tag were detected at the cell surface by immunocytochemistry and FACS of non-permeabilised human embryonic kidney HEK 293T cells transfected with the DDX4 construct. DDX4 mRNA expression was detected in the DDX4-positive sorted cells by RT-PCR. This study clearly demonstrates that the C-terminus of DDX4 can be expressed on the cell surface despite its lack of a conventional membrane-targeting or secretory sequence. These results validate the use of antibody-based FACS to isolate DDX4-positive putative OSCs.

Female Fertility Preservation through Stem Cell-based Ovarian Tissue Reconstitution In Vitro and Ovarian Regeneration In Vivo

Historically, approaches designed to offer women diagnosed with cancer the prospects of having a genetically matched child after completion of their cytotoxic treatments focused on the existing oocyte population as the sole resource available for clinical management of infertility. In this regard, elective oocyte and embryo cryopreservation, as well as autologous ovarian cortical tissue grafting posttreatment, have gained widespread support as options for young girls and reproductive-age women who are faced with cancer to consider. In addition, the use of ovarian protective therapies, including gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists and sphingosine-1-phosphate analogs, has been put forth as an alternative way to preserve fertility by shielding existing oocytes in the ovaries in vivo from the side-effect damage caused by radiotherapy and many chemotherapeutic regimens. This viewpoint changed with the publication of now numerous reports that adult ovaries of many mammalian species, including humans, contain a rare population of oocyte-producing germ cells-referred to as female germline or oogonial stem cells (OSCs). This new line of study has fueled research into the prospects of generating new oocytes, rather than working with existing oocytes, as a novel approach to sustain or restore fertility in female cancer survivors. Here, we overview the history of work from laboratories around the world focused on improving our understanding of the biology of OSCs and how these cells may be used to reconstitute "artificial" ovarian tissue in vitro or to regenerate damaged ovarian tissue in vivo as future fertility-preservation options.

Extracellular matrix signaling activates differentiation of adult ovary-derived oogonial stem cells in a species-specific manner

OBJECTIVE

To test if ovarian microenvironmental cues affect oogonial stem cell (OSC) function in a species-specific manner.

DESIGN

Animal and human study.

SETTING

Research laboratory.

PATIENT(S)/ANIMAL(S)

Human ovarian cells obtained from cryopreserved ovarian cortical tissue of reproductive-age women, and ovarian cells and tissues from female C57BL/6 mice.

INTERVENTION(S)

Mouse ovarian tissue, mouse OSCs (mOSCs) and human OSCs (hOSCs) were analyzed for extracellular matrix (ECM) protein expression, and OSCs isolated from adult mouse and human ovaries were cultured in the absence or presence of ECM proteins without or with an integrin signaling inhibitor.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Gene expression and in vitro derived (IVD) oocyte formation.

RESULT(S)

Culture of mOSCs on a collagen-based ECM significantly elevated the rate of differentiation of the cells into IVD oocytes. Mouse OSCs expressed many integrins, including Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-binding subunits, and ECM-mediated increases in mOSC differentiation were blocked by addition of integrin-antagonizing RGD peptides. In comparison, hOSCs expressed a different pattern of integrin subunits compared with mOSCs, and hOSCs were unresponsive to a collagen-based ECM; however, hOSCs exhibited increased differentiation into IVD oocytes when cultured on laminin.

CONCLUSION(S)

These data, along with in silico analysis of ECM protein profiles in human ovaries, indicate that ovarian ECM-based niche components function in a species-specific manner to control OSC differentiation.

Implications and Current Limitations of Oogenesis from Female Germline or Oogonial Stem Cells in Adult Mammalian Ovaries

A now large body of evidence supports the existence of mitotically active germ cells in postnatal ovaries of diverse mammalian species, including humans. This opens the possibility that adult stem cells naturally committed to a germline fate could be leveraged for the production of female gametes outside of the body. The functional properties of these cells, referred to as female germline or oogonial stem cells (OSCs), in ovaries of women have recently been tested in various ways, including a very recent investigation of the differentiation capacity of human OSCs at a single cell level. The exciting insights gained from these experiments, coupled with other data derived from intraovarian transplantation and genetic tracing analyses in animal models that have established the capacity of OSCs to generate healthy eggs, embryos and offspring, should drive constructive discussions in this relatively new field to further exploring the value of these cells to the study, and potential management, of human female fertility. Here, we provide a brief history of the discovery and characterization of OSCs in mammals, as well as of the in-vivo significance of postnatal oogenesis to adult ovarian function. We then highlight several key observations made recently on the biology of OSCs, and integrate this information into a broader discussion of the potential value and limitations of these adult stem cells to achieving a greater understanding of human female gametogenesis in vivo and in vitro.

Comparison of different in vitro differentiation conditions for murine female germline stem cells

Objectives

In vitro differentiation of oocytes from female germline stem cells (FGSCs) has exciting potential applications for reproductive medicine. Some researchers have attempted to reveal the in vitro differentiation capacity of FGSCs. However, no systematic comparative study of in vitro differentiation conditions has been performed for murine FGSCs (mFGSCs).

Materials and Methods

mFGSCs line was cultured under five different conditions for in vitro differentiation. RT‐PCR was performed to detect the expression of Oct4, Fragilis, Blimp1, Mvh, Scp3 and Zp3. Immunofluorescence was carried out to test the expression of Mvh, Fragilis and Zp3. Two‐photon laser‐scanning microscope was used to analyze nucleus‐plasma ratio, and the proportion of chromatin of GV oocytes differentiated from mFGSCs in vitro (IVD‐GVO), GV oocytes from in vivo (GVO) and mFGSCs.

Results

RT‐PCR and immunofluorescence showed that mFGSC line expressed germ cell‐specific markers, but not a meiosis‐specific marker. By evaluating five different in vitro differentiation conditions, condition 5, which included a hanging drop procedure and co‐culture of mFGSCs with granulosa cells, was shown to be optimal. mFGSCs could be successfully differentiated into germinal vesicle (GV) ‐stage oocytes under this condition. 3D observation revealed that both the nucleus‐plasma ratio and proportion of chromatin were not significantly different between IVD‐GVO and GVO.

Conclusion

We evaluated five in vitro differentiation conditions for mFGSCs and successfully differentiate mFGSCs into GV‐stage oocytes using a three‐step differentiation process.

Isolation and in vitro culture of ovarian stem cells in Chinese soft-shell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis)

Gonadal cell lines provide valuable tools for studying gametogenesis, sex differentiation, and manipulating germ cells in reproductive biology. Female germline stem cells have been characterized and isolated from ovaries of mammalian species, including mice and human, but there has been very few studies on female germline stem cells in reptiles. Here, we described an ovarian stem cell-like line isolated and cultured from the Chinese soft-shell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis), designated as PSO1. The cells showed high alkaline phosphatase activity with a normal diploid karyotype. As shown by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, the cells were positive for the expression of germ cell-specific genes, vasa and dazl, as well as a stem cell marker, nanog, but negative for the expression of the folliculogenesis-specific gene, figla. Likewise, through fluorescent immunostaining analyses, both the Dazl and Vasa proteins were detected abundantly in the cytoplasm of perinuclear region, whereas Nanog and PCNA were dominantly observed in the nuclei in PSO1 cells. Moreover, PSO1 cells transfected with pCS2:h2b-egfp could properly express the fusion protein in the nuclei. Taken together, the findings suggested that the germline stem cells exist in the ovary of juvenile Chinese soft-shell turtle and these cells can be isolated for a long-term in vitro culture under experimental conditions. This study has provided a valuable basis for further investigations on the molecular mechanisms whereby the germline stem cells develop and differentiate into gametes in turtles. Also, it has paved the way for studies on oogenesis in turtles, even in the other reptiles.

Cadherin 22 participates in the self-renewal of mouse female germ line stem cells via interaction with JAK2 and β-catenin

The self-renewal capacity of the stem cell pool determines tissue function and health. Cadherin-22 (Cdh22), a member of the cadherin superfamily, has two splicing patterns in rats, and the short type that lacks a catenin binding domain is closely related to spermatogonial stem cell self-renewal. Previously, we reported that CDH22 was highly expressed in mouse ovary germ cells, especially in female germ line stem cells (FGSCs). However, its underlying function in FGSCs is still not clear. Here, we found that Cdh22 encodes only one type of protein product in mice and demonstrated that CDH22 was required for FGSC self-renewal. In addition, JAK2 and β-catenin were found to interact with CDH22 and be involved in CDH22 signaling in mouse FGSCs. Moreover, extrinsic CDH22 was identified as a potential molecule that participates in FGSC adhesion and is pivotal for FGSC maintenance and self-renewal. These results reveal that CDH22 functions as an essential molecule in FGSC maintenance and self-renewal via different mechanisms, including interaction with the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and β-catenin.

Differentiation of Mouse Ovarian Stem Cells Toward Oocyte-Like Structure by Coculture with Granulosa Cells

An increasing body of evidence has confirmed existence and function of ovarian stem cells (OSCs). In this study, a novel approach on differentiation of OSCs into oocyte-like cells (OLCs) has been addressed. Recently, different methods have been recruited to isolate and describe aspects of OSCs, but newer and more convenient strategies in isolation are still growing. Herein, a morphology-based method was used to isolate OSCs. Cell suspension of mouse neonatal ovaries was cultured and formed colonies were harvested mechanically and cultivated on mouse embryonic fibroblasts. For differentiation induction, colonies transferred on inactive granulosa cells. Results showed that cells in colonies were positive for alkaline phosphatase activity and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) confirmed the pluripotency characteristics of cells. Immunofluorescence revealed a positive signal for OCT4, DAZL, MVH, and SSEA1 in colonies as well. Results of RT-PCR and immunofluorescence confirmed that some OLCs were generated within the germ stem cell (GSCs) colonies. The applicability of morphological selection for isolation of GSCs was verified. This method is easier and more economic than other techniques. Our results demonstrate that granulosa cells were effective in inducing the differentiation of OSCs into OLCs through direct cell-to-cell contacts.

Improved Isolation, Proliferation, and Differentiation Capacity of Mouse Ovarian Putative Stem Cells

The recent discovery of ovarian stem cells in postnatal mammalian ovaries, also referred to as putative stem cells (PSCs), and their roles in mammalian fertility has challenged the long-existing theory that women are endowed with a certain number of germ cells. The rare amount of PSCs is the major limitation for utilizing them through different applications. Therefore, this study was conducted in six phases to find a way to increase the number of Fragilis- and mouse vasa homolog (MVH)-positive sorted cells from 14-day-old NMRI strain mice. Results showed that there is a population of Fragilis- and MVH-positive cells with pluripotent stem cell characteristics, which can be isolated and expanded for months in vitro. PSCs increase their proliferation capacity under the influence of some mitogenic agents, and our results showed that different doses of stem cell factor (SCF) induce PSC proliferation with the maximum increase observed at 50 ng/mL. SCF was also able to increase the number of Fragilis- and MVH-positive cells after sorting by magnetic-activated cell sorting and enhance colony formation efficiency in sorted cells. Differentiation capacity assay indicated that there is a basic level of spontaneous differentiation toward oocyte-like cells during 3 days of culture. However, relative gene expression was significantly higher in the follicle-stimulating hormone-treated groups, especially in the Fragilis- sorted PSCs. We suggest that higher number of PSCs provides us either a greater source of energy that can be injected into energy-impaired oocytes in women with a history of repeat IVF failure or a good source for research.

Genetic studies in mice directly link oocytes produced during adulthood to ovarian function and natural fertility

Multiple labs have reported that mammalian ovaries contain oogonial stem cells (OSCs), which can differentiate into oocytes that fertilize to produce offspring. However, the physiological relevance of these observations to adult ovarian function is unknown. Here we performed targeted and reversible ablation of premeiotic germ cells undergoing differentiation into oocytes in transgenic mice expressing the suicide gene, herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSVtk), driven by the promoter of stimulated by retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8), a germ cell-specific gene activated during meiotic commitment. Over a 21-day ablation phase induced by the HSVtk pro-drug, ganciclovir (GCV), oocyte numbers declined due to a disruption of new oocyte input. However, germ cell differentiation resumed after ceasing the ablation protocol, enabling complete regeneration of the oocyte pool. We next employed inducible lineage tracing to fate map, through Cre recombinase-mediated fluorescent reporter gene activation only in Stra8-expressing cells, newly-formed oocytes. Induction of the system during adulthood yielded a mosaic pool of unmarked (pre-existing) and marked (newly-formed) oocytes. Marked oocytes matured and fertilized to produce offspring, which grew normally to adulthood and transmitted the reporter to second-generation offspring. These findings establish that oocytes generated during adulthood contribute directly to ovarian function and natural fertility in mammals.

Role of the Hedgehog Signaling Pathway in Regulating the Behavior of Germline Stem Cells

Germline stem cells (GSCs) are adult stem cells that are responsible for the production of gametes and include spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) and ovarian germline stem cells (OGSCs). GSCs are located in a specialized microenvironment in the gonads called the niche. Many recent studies have demonstrated that multiple signals in the niche jointly regulate the proliferation and differentiation of GSCs, which is of significance for reproductive function. Previous studies have demonstrated that the hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway participates in the proliferation and differentiation of various stem cells, including GSCs in Drosophila and male mammals. Furthermore, the discovery of mammalian OGSCs challenged the traditional opinion that the number of primary follicles is fixed in postnatal mammals, which is of significance for the reproductive ability of female mammals and the treatment of diseases related to germ cells. Meanwhile, it still remains to be determined whether the Hh signaling pathway participates in the regulation of the behavior of OGSCs. Herein, we review the current research on the role of the Hh signaling pathway in mediating the behavior of GSCs. In addition, some suggestions for future research are proposed.

Neo-oogenesis in mammals

Recently, the existence of a mechanism for neo-oogenesis in the ovaries of adult mammals has generated much controversy within reproductive biology. This mechanism, which proposes that the ovary has cells capable of renewing the follicular reserve, has been described for various species of mammals. The first evidence was found in prosimians and humans. However, these findings were not considered relevant because the predominant dogma for reproductive biology at the time was that of Zuckerman. This dogma states that female mammals are born with finite numbers of oocytes that decline throughout postnatal life. Currently, the concept of neo-oogenesis has gained momentum due to the discovery of cells with mitotic activity in adult ovaries of various mammalian species (mice, humans, rhesus monkeys, domestic animals such as pigs, and wild animals such as bats). Despite these reports, the concept of neo-oogenesis has not been widely accepted by the scientific community, generating much criticism and speculation about its accuracy because it has been impossible to reproduce some evidence. This controversy has led to the creation of two positions: one in favour of neo-oogenesis and the other against it. Various animal models have been used in support of both camps, including both classic laboratory animals and domestic and wild animals. The aim of this review is to critically present the current literature on the subject and to evaluate the arguments pro and contra neo-oogenesis in mammals.

Expression of markers for germ cells and oocytes in cow dermal fibroblast treated with 5-azacytidine and cultured in differentiation medium containing BMP2, BMP4 or follicular fluid

This study aims to investigate the effect 5-azacytidine (5-Aza) during induction of pluripotency in bovine fibroblasts and to evaluate the effects of BMP2, BMP4 or follicular fluid in the differentiation of reprogrammed fibroblasts in primordial germ cells and oocytes. It also analysis the mRNA levels for OCT4, NANOG, REX, SOX2, VASA, DAZL, cKIT, SCP3, ZPA and GDF9 after culturing 5-Aza treated fibroblasts in the different tested medium. Dermal fibroblasts were cultured and exposed to 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 μM of 5-Aza for 18 h, 36 h or 72 h. Then, the cells were cultured in DMEM/F12 supplemented with 10 ng/ml BMP2, 10 ng/ml BMP4 or 5% follicular fluid. After culture, morphological characteristics, viability and gene expression were evaluated by qPCR. Treatment of skin fibroblasts with 2.0 μM 5-Aza for 72 h significantly increased expression of mRNAs for SOX2, OCT4, NANOG and REX. The culture in medium supplemented with BMP2, BMP4 or follicular fluid for 7 or 14 days induced formation of oocyte-like cells, as well as the expression of markers for germ cells and oocyte. In conclusion, treatment of bovine skin-derived fibroblasts with 2.0 μM 5-Aza for 72 h induces the expression of pluripotency factors. Culturing these cells in differentiation medium supplemented with BMP2, BMP4 or follicular fluid induces morphological changes and promotes expression of markers for germ cells, meiosis and oocyte.

BMP4 enhances hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation by promoting cell cycle progression via ID2/CDKN1B signaling

Bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP4) plays a crucial role in carcinogenesis, but the effects and signaling mechanisms of BMP4 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are not clearly clarified. The present study aimed to identify the roles of BMP4 in the proliferation of human HCC. In this study, BMP4 expression and its correlation with clinicopathological characteristics and the survival of HCC patients were analyzed in two independent cohorts consisting of 310 subjects. Functional analysis of BMP4 on HCC proliferation was performed in vitro and in vivo in human HCC specimens, HCC cells of Bel-7402 and HCCLM3, and subcutaneous tumor model. The downstream signaling targets of BMP4 in HCC were investigated by PCR Array and Western blot. The results indicated that BMP4 expression was significantly increased in HCC tissues and closely related with unfavorable prognosis of HCC. BMP4 treatment increased cell proliferation and promoted G1/S cell cycle progression. In vivo subcutaneous tumor of nude mice model supported that BMP4 overexpression promoted the growth of HCC cells and BMP4 knockdown hold the opposite trend. Id2 was directly upregulated by BMP4, resulting in the mediated expression of cell cycle regulatory protein of CDKN1B. Blocking of Id2 attenuated BMP4-induced proliferation, confirming the important roles of Id2 in BMP4-mediated proliferation in HCC. So BMP4 is overexpressed in HCC tissues and acts as a poor prognostic factor of HCC patients. BMP4-induced ID2/CDKN1B signaling facilitates proliferation of HCC.

Ovarian regeneration: The potential for stem cell contribution in the postnatal ovary to sustained endocrine function

The endocrine function of the ovary is dependent upon the ovarian follicle, which on a cellular basis consists of an oocyte surrounded by adjacent somatic cells responsible for generating sex steroid hormones and maintenance of hormonal stasis with the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. As females age, both fertility and the endocrine function of the ovary decline due to waning follicle numbers as well as aging-related cellular dysfunction. Although there is currently no cure for ovarian failure and endocrine disruption, recent advances in ovarian biology centered on ovarian stem cell and progenitor cell populations have brought the prospects of cell- or tissue-based therapeutic strategies closer to fruition. Herein, we review the relative contributions of ovarian stem cells to ovarian function during the reproductive lifespan, and postulate steps toward the development of ovarian stem cell-based approaches to advance fertility treatments, and also importantly to provide a physiological long-term means of endocrine support.

Effects of bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) on in vitro development and survival of bovine preantral follicles enclosed in fragments ovarian tissue

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of BMP4 on activation, development and mRNA expression of GDF9, BMP15, PCNA, Bax and Bcl2 in cultured bovine follicles enclosed in ovarian tissues. Ovarian tissue fragments were cultured for 6 days in α-MEM+ alone or supplemented with different concentrations of BMP4 (10, 50 or 100 ng/ml). Classical histology was performed to analyze follicle growth and morphology, while real-time PCR was used to analyze mRNA levels in fresh and cultured tissues. After 6 days, the culture of ovarian tissue in α-MEM+ alone or supplemented with 10, 50 or 100 ng/ml BMP4 promoted follicular activation. The different concentrations of BMP4 maintained the percentage of normal follicles similar to results of the control. The presence of 100 ng/ml BMP-4 in culture medium increased oocyte and follicular diameters of primary and secondary follicles when compared with those follicles from uncultured control or cultured in α-MEM+ alone (P < 0.05). The tissues cultured in the presence of increasing concentrations of BMP4 had an increase in mRNA expression of the tested genes, but despite this the differences were not statistically significant. In conclusion, 100 ng/ml BMP4 promotes an increase in diameters of follicles and oocytes of primary and secondary follicles after 6 days of in vitro culture.

BMP4 promotes a phenotype change of an esophageal squamous epithelium via up-regulation of KLF4

INTRODUCTION

Barrett's esophagus is a metaplastic lesion. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the roles of KLF4 and BMP4 in the pathogenesis of Barrett's epithelium.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was used to analyse the expression of KLF4, BMP4, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5AC in human esophageal specimens. Human esophageal squamous epithelial cells were subjected to bile acid treatment and used in transfection experiments. Quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were used to detect the expression of KLF4, BMP4, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac.

RESULTS

In human tissues, Barrett's epithelium strongly expressed BMP4, p-Smad1/5/8 and KLF4. Furthermore, bile acids increased the expression of BMP4, KLF4, p-Smad1/5/8, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac in esophageal epithelial cells in a time-dependent manner. Moreover, we found that BMP4 up-regulated the expression of KLF4, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac, but Noggin, a specific BMP4 antagonist, can block the expression of KLF4, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac induced by BMP4. However, BMP4 cannot induce the expression of CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac in cells with KLF4 siRNA, and Noggin cannot block the expression of KLF4, CDX2, MUC2 and MUC5ac in cells transfected with the KLF4 expression vector.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that BMP4 promotes a phenotype change of an esophageal squamous epithelium via up-regulation of KLF4.

Combination therapeutics in complex diseases

The biological redundancies in molecular networks of complex diseases limit the efficacy of many single drug therapies. Combination therapeutics, as a common therapeutic method, involve pharmacological intervention using several drugs that interact with multiple targets in the molecular networks of diseases and may achieve better efficacy and/or less toxicity than monotherapy in practice. The development of combination therapeutics is complicated by several critical issues, including identifying multiple targets, targeting strategies and the drug combination. This review summarizes the current achievements in combination therapeutics, with a particular emphasis on the efforts to develop combination therapeutics for complex diseases.

Human GV oocytes generated by mitotically active germ cells obtained from follicular aspirates

Human female germline stem cells (FGSCs) have opened new opportunities for understanding human oogenesis, delaying menopause, treating infertility, and providing a new strategy for preserving fertility. However, the shortage of adult human ovaries tissues available impedes their future investigations and clinical applications. Here, we have established FGSC lines from scarce ovarian cortical tissues that exist in follicular aspirates (faFGSCs), which are produced and discarded in in vitro fertilization centers worldwide. The faFGSCs have characteristics of germline stem cells involved in the gene expression profile, growth characteristics, and a normal karyotype consistent with that of FGSCs obtained from ovarian cortexes surgically removed from patients (srFGSCs). Furthermore, faFGSCs have developmental potentials including spontaneous differentiation into oocytes under feeder-free conditions, communicating with granulosa cells by gap junctions and paracrine factors, entering meiosis after RA induction, as well as forming follicles after injection into human ovarian cortical tissues xenografted into adult immunodeficient female mice. Lastly, we developed a strategy guiding FGSCs differentiated into germinal vesicle (GV) stage oocytes in vitro and revealed their developmental mechanisms. Our study not only provides a new approach to obtain human FGSCs for medical treatment, but also opens several avenues to investigate human oogenesis in vitro.

FACS-sorted putative oogonial stem cells from the ovary are neither DDX4-positive nor germ cells

Whether the adult mammalian ovary contains oogonial stem cells (OSCs) is controversial. They have been isolated by a live-cell sorting method using the germ cell marker DDX4, which has previously been assumed to be cytoplasmic, not surface-bound. Furthermore their stem cell and germ cell characteristics remain disputed. Here we show that although OSC-like cells can be isolated from the ovary using an antibody to DDX4, there is no good in silico modelling to support the existence of a surface-bound DDX4. Furthermore these cells when isolated were not expressing DDX4, and did not initially possess germline identity. Despite these unremarkable beginnings, they acquired some pre-meiotic markers in culture, including DDX4, but critically never expressed oocyte-specific markers, and furthermore were not immortal but died after a few months. Our results suggest that freshly isolated OSCs are not germ stem cells, and are not being isolated by their DDX4 expression. However it may be that culture induces some pre-meiotic markers. In summary the present study offers weight to the dogma that the adult ovary is populated by a fixed number of oocytes and that adult de novo production is a rare or insignificant event.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 and retinoic acid trigger bovine VASA homolog expression in differentiating bovine induced pluripotent stem cells

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the earliest identifiable and completely committed progenitors of female and male gametes. They are obvious targets for genome editing because they assure the transmission of desirable or introduced traits to future generations. PGCs are established at the earliest stages of embryo development and are difficult to propagate in vitro--two characteristics that pose a problem for their practical application. One alternative method to enrich for PGCs in vitro is to differentiate them from pluripotent stem cells derived from adult tissues. Here, we establish a reporter system for germ cell identification in bovine pluripotent stem cells based on green fluorescent protein expression driven by the minimal essential promoter of the bovine Vasa homolog (BVH) gene, whose regulatory elements were identified by orthologous modelling of regulatory units. We then evaluated the potential of bovine induced pluripotent stem cell (biPSC) lines carrying the reporter construct to differentiate toward the germ cell lineage. Our results showed that biPSCs undergo differentiation as embryoid bodies, and a fraction of the differentiating cells expressed BVH. The rate of differentiation towards BVH-positive cells increased up to tenfold in the presence of bone morphogenetic protein 4 or retinoic acid. Finally, we determined that the expression of key PGC genes, such as BVH or SOX2, can be modified by pre-differentiation cell culture conditions, although this increase is not necessarily mirrored by an increase in the rate of differentiation.

Autologous Germline Mitochondrial Energy Transfer (AUGMENT) in Human Assisted Reproduction

Ovarian aging is characterized by a decline in both the total number and overall quality of oocytes, the latter of which has been experimentally tied to mitochondrial dysfunction. Clinical studies in the late 1990s demonstrated that transfer of cytoplasm aspirated from eggs of young female donors into eggs of infertile women at the time of intracytoplasmic sperm injection improved pregnancy success rates. However, donor mitochondria were identified in offspring, and the United States Food and Drug Administration raised questions about delivery of foreign genetic material into human eggs at the time of fertilization. Accordingly, heterologous cytoplasmic transfer, while promising, was in effect shut down as a clinical protocol. The recent discovery of adult oogonial (oocyte-generating) stem cells in mice, and subsequently in women, has since re-opened the prospects of delivering a rich source of pristine and patient-matched germline mitochondria to boost egg health and embryonic developmental potential without the need for young donor eggs to obtain cytoplasm. Herein we overview the science behind this new protocol, which has been patented and termed autologous germline mitochondrial energy transfer, and its use to date in clinical studies for improving pregnancy success in women with a prior history of assisted reproduction failure.

Improvement in Isolation and Identification of Mouse Oogonial Stem Cells

Female germline stem cells (FGSCs) or oogonial stem cells (OSCs) have the capacity to generate newborn oocytes and thus open a new door to fight ovarian aging and female infertility. However, the production and identification of OSCs are difficult for investigators. Rare amount of these cells in the ovary results in the failure of the acquisition of OSCs. Furthermore, the oocyte formation by OSCs in vivo was usually confirmed using tissue sections by immunofluorescence or immunohistochemistry in previous studies. STO or MEF feeder cells are derived from mouse, not human. In our study, we modified the protocol. The cells were digested from ovaries and cultured for 2-3 days and then were purified by magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS). The ovaries and fetus of mice injected with EGFP-positive OSCs were prepared and put on the slides to directly visualize oocyte and progeny formation under microscope. Additionally, the human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) were also used as feeder cells to support the proliferation of OSCs. The results showed that all the modified procedures can significantly improve and facilitate the generation and characterization of OSCs, and hUC-MSCs as feeder will be useful for isolation and proliferation of human OSCs avoiding contamination from mouse.

Novel Action of FSH on Stem Cells in Adult Mammalian Ovary Induces Postnatal Oogenesis and Primordial Follicle Assembly

Adult mammalian ovary has been under the scanner for more than a decade now since it was proposed to harbor stem cells that undergo postnatal oogenesis during reproductive period like spermatogenesis in testis. Stem cells are located in the ovary surface epithelium and exist in adult and menopausal ovary as well as in ovary with premature failure. Stem cells comprise two distinct populations including spherical, very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs which express nuclear OCT-4 and other pluripotent and primordial germ cells specific markers) and slightly bigger ovarian germ stem cells (OGSCs with cytoplasmic OCT-4 which are equivalent to spermatogonial stem cells in the testes). These stem cells have the ability to spontaneously differentiate into oocyte-like structures in vitro and on exposure to a younger healthy niche. Bone marrow may be an alternative source of these stem cells. The stem cells express FSHR and respond to FSH by undergoing self-renewal, clonal expansion, and initiating neo-oogenesis and primordial follicle assembly. VSELs are relatively quiescent and were recently reported to survive chemotherapy and initiate oogenesis in mice when exposed to FSH. This emerging understanding and further research in the field will help evolving novel strategies to manage ovarian pathologies and also towards oncofertility.

Ovarian stem cells: From basic to clinical applications

The field of reproductive biology has undergone significant developments in the last decade. The notion that there is a fixed reserve pool of oocytes before birth was established by Zuckerman in 1951. However, in 2004, an article published in nature challenged this central dogma of mammalian reproductive biology. Tilly’s group reported the existence of ovarian germline stem cells (GSCs) in postnatal ovaries of mice and suggested that the bone marrow could be an extragonadal source of ovarian GSCs. These findings were strongly criticized; however, several independent groups have since successfully isolated and characterized ovarian GSCs in postnatal mice. The ovarian GSCs are located in the ovarian surface epithelium and express markers of undifferentiated GSCs. When transplanted into mouse ovaries, mouse ovarian GSCs could differentiate and produce embryos and offspring. Similarly, in a recent study, ovarian GSCs were found to be present in the ovaries of women of reproductive age. Conversely, there is increasing evidence that stem cells responsible for maintaining a healthy state in normal tissue may be a source of some cancers, including ovarian cancer. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been found in many tissues, including ovaries. Some researchers have suggested that ovarian cancer may be a result of the transformation and dysfunction of ovarian GSCs with self-renewal properties. Drug resistant and metastasis-generating CSCs are responsible for many important problems affecting ovarian cancer patients. Therefore, the identification of CSCs will provide opportunities for the development of new therapeutic strategies for treatments for infertility and ovarian cancer. In this article, we summarize the current understanding of ovarian GSCs in adult mammals, and we also discuss whether there is a relationship between GSCs and CSCs.

Emerging methods to generate artificial germ cells from stem cells

Germ cells are responsible for the transmission of genetic and epigenetic information across generations. At present, the number of infertile couples is increasing worldwide; these infertility problems can be traced to environmental pollutions, infectious diseases, cancer, psychological or work-related stress, and other factors, such as lifestyle and genetics. Notably, lack of germ cells and germ cell loss present real obstacles in infertility treatment. Recent research aimed at producing gametes through artificial germ cell generation from stem cells may offer great hope for affected couples to treat infertility in the future. Therefore, this rapidly emerging area of artificial germ cell generation from nongermline cells has gained considerable attention from basic and clinical research in the fields of stem cell biology, developmental biology, and reproductive biology. Here, we review the state of the art in artificial germ cell generation.

Expression of BMP4 in myocardium and vascular tissue of obese mice

Background

Obesity is regarded as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) is a proinflammatory and profibrotic factor, and the reduced expression of this molecule in obese mice seems to be inconsistent with the known proinflammatory effects of obesity. Therefore, we studied BMP4 expression and inflammation in the myocardial tissue and aortas of obese mice.

Methods and Results

Four-week-old ob/ob mice were used as the experimental group, and C57BL/6 mice comprised the control group. Animals were sacrificed after a 12-week full diet, and then the blood, heart, abdominal aorta, and inguinal adipose tissue were collected. The expression of BMP4 mRNA and protein in the heart and aorta was significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group, but expression was lower in adipose tissue. Inflammation measured by the expression of IL-1β and IL-9 mRNA and protein and Smad1 and phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 protein in the heart and aorta was higher in the experimental group than in the control group. In addition, the expression of BMP4 in the serum was significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group.

Conclusion

BMP4 is significantly overexpressed in the myocardial tissue and aortas of obese mice, and mediates local inflammatory responses.

Stem cells, progenitor cells, and lineage decisions in the ovary

Exploring stem cells in the mammalian ovary has unleashed a Pandora's box of new insights and questions. Recent evidence supports the existence of stem cells of a number of the different cell types within the ovary. The evidence for a stem cell model producing mural granulosa cells and cumulus cells is strong, despite a limited number of reports. The recent identification of a precursor granulosa cell, the gonadal ridge epithelial-like cell, is exciting and novel. The identification of female germline (oogonial) stem cells is still very new and is currently limited to just a few species. Their origins and physiological roles, if any, are unknown, and their potential to produce oocytes and contribute to follicle formation in vivo lacks robust evidence. The precursor of thecal cells remains elusive, and more compelling data are needed. Similarly, claims of very small embryonic-like cells are also preliminary. Surface epithelial cells originating from gonadal ridge epithelial-like cells and from the mesonephric epithelium at the hilum of the ovary have also been proposed. Another important issue is the role of the stroma in guiding the formation of the ovary, ovigerous cords, follicles, and surface epithelium. Immune cells may also play key roles in developmental patterning, given their critical roles in corpora lutea formation and regression. Thus, while the cellular biology of the ovary is extremely important for its major endocrine and fertility roles, there is much still to be discovered. This review draws together the current evidence and perspectives on this topic.

Expression of repulsive guidance molecule b (RGMb) in the uterus and ovary during the estrous cycle in rats

Repulsive guidance molecule b (RGMb; a.k.a. Dragon), initially identified in the embryonic dorsal root ganglion, is the first member of the RGM family shown to enhance bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling by acting as a BMP co-receptor. BMP signaling has been demonstrated to play an important role in the reproductive organs. Our previous study found that RGMb was expressed in the reproductive axis, but whether RGMb expression in reproductive organs changes across the estrous cycle remains unknown. Here, we show in the rat that RGMb mRNA expression in the uterus was significantly higher during metesterus and diestrus than during proestrus and estrus. Western blotting indicated that RGMb protein was significantly lower during estrus compared with the other three stages. Immunohistochemistry revealed that RGMb protein was mainly localized to the uterine luminal and glandular epithelial cells of the endometrium. RGMb mRNA and protein in the ovary remained unchanged during the estrous cycle. RGMb protein was expressed in the oocytes of all follicles. Weak staining for RGMb protein was also found in corpora lutea. RGMb was not detected in granulosa cells and stromal cells. Taken together, RGMb expression in the uterus and ovary across the estrus cycle demonstrate that RGMb may be involved in the regulation of uterine function, follicular development as well as luteal activity.

Use of DEAD-box polypeptide-4 (Ddx4) gene promoter-driven fluorescent reporter mice to identify mitotically active germ cells in post-natal mouse ovaries

Several laboratories have independently isolated mitotically active germ cells, termed female germline stem cells or oogonial stem cells (OSCs), from adult mouse ovaries. However, a recent study using Ddx4-Cre;Rosa26 reporter mice concluded that such germ cells do not exist. Given the disparity in conclusions drawn in this study compared with others, we felt it was important to re-assess the utility of Ddx4-Cre;Rosa26 reporter mice for identification of OSCs in adult mouse ovaries. Transgenic Ddx4-Cre mice were crossed with Rosa26(tdTm/tdTm) mice to drive restricted tomato red (tdTm) gene expression in cells in which the Ddx4 gene promoter has been activated. Crude dispersion of ovaries from recombined offspring generated cell fractions containing tdTm-positive immature oocytes, which are incapable of proliferation and thus probably represent the uncharacterized reporter-positive ovarian cells identified in the paper Zhang et al. (2012) as being mitotically inactive. Dispersed ovaries further subjected to fluorescence-activated cell sorting yielded a large population of non-germline tdTm-positive cells, indicative of promoter 'leakiness' in the Ddx4-Cre mouse line. Nonetheless, a small percentage of these tdTm-positive cells exhibited externalized (extracellular, ec) expression of Ddx4 protein (ecDdx4-positive), expressed markers of primitive germ cells but not of oocytes, and actively proliferated in culture, all of which are characteristic features of OSCs. Thus, crude dispersion of ovaries collected from Ddx4 gene promoter-driven reporter mice is not, by itself, a reliable approach to identify OSCs, whereas the same ovarian dispersates further subjected to cell sorting strategies yield purified OSCs that can be expanded in culture.