Antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella strains isolated from retail meat products in Poland between 2008 and 2012

Antimicrobial Resistance in the Context of Animal Production and Meat Products in Poland-A Critical Review and Future Perspective

The prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in meat and meat products is a significant public health challenge, largely driven by the excessive and inappropriate use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry. In Poland, a key meat producer in Europe, antibiotic-resistant pathogens such as Campylobacter spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Enterobacterales have been detected in meat, posing serious risks to consumers. This review examines the use of antimicrobial agents in meat production and the resulting antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in microorganisms isolated from meat products in Poland. The mechanisms of AMR, genetic factors, and prevalence in Poland are presented. It highlights key factors contributing to AMR, such as antibiotic misuse in livestock farming, and discusses the legal regulations governing veterinary drug residues in food. This review emphasizes the importance of monitoring and enforcement to safeguard public health and calls for further research on AMR in the meat industry. Antimicrobial resistance in meat and meat products in Poland is a huge challenge, requiring stricter antibiotic controls in animal husbandry and improved surveillance systems. Additionally, the impact of husbandry practices on the environment and food requires further research. Future efforts should focus on nationwide monitoring, alternative strategies to reduce antibiotic use, and stronger enforcement to combat antimicrobial resistance and protect public health.

Synthetic and natural antimicrobials as a control against food borne pathogens: A review

Food borne pathogens are one of the most common yet concerning cause of illnesses around the globe. These microbes invade the body via food items, through numerous mediums of contamination and it is impossible to completely eradicate these organisms from food. Extensive research has been made regarding their treatment. Unfortunately, the only available treatment currently is by antibiotics. Recent exponential increase in antibiotic resistance and the side effect of synthetic compounds have established a need for alternate therapies that could be utilized either on their own or along with antibiotics to provide protection against food-borne diseases. The aim of this review is to provide information regarding some common food borne diseases, their current and possible natural treatment. It will include details regarding some common foodborne pathogens, the disease they cause, prevalence, manifestations and treatment of the respective disease. Some natural modes of potential treatment will be summarized, which including phytochemicals, derived from plants either as crude extracts or as purified form and Bacteriocins as microbial based treatment, obtained from various types of bacteria. The paper will describe their mechanism of action, classification, susceptible organisms, some antimicrobial compounds and producing organisms, application in food systems and as potential treatment. Along with that, synthetic treatment i.e., antibiotics will be discussed including the first-line treatment of some common food borne infections, prevalence and mechanism of resistance against antibiotics in the pathogens.

Salmonella spp. in Chicken: Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Detection Methods

Multidrug-resistant Salmonella spp. is one of the leading causes of worldwide foodborne disease outbreaks. Animal-derived foods, particularly chicken and poultry products, are the most likely source of Salmonella transmission to humans. The increasing demand for chicken meat has raised a global food safety issue. This review aims to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella spp. in chickens from various countries in Asia. The methods for detecting Salmonella will also be discussed in this review. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. in chicken and poultry products is lower in developed countries than in developing countries. In addition, the incidence of Salmonella spp. in chicken and poultry products from fresh markets is higher than those from supermarkets. Furthermore, this review also reported the presence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains in various Asian countries. Rapid Salmonella detection based on immunological assays, molecular-based assays, and biosensors can provide more accurate results with high sensitivity and specificity. These methods also require a shorter time than the cultural-based Salmonella detection method. The use of suitable detection methods to determine the presence of Salmonella spp. in chicken and poultry products is important to ensure food safety.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Non-Typhoid Salmonella in Meat and Meat Products

Salmonella enterica serovars are associated with numerous annual deaths worldwide and are responsible for a large number of foodborne diseases. Within this frame of reference, knowledge of antimicrobial susceptibility represents the fundamental approach of most Salmonella treatments. Therefore, scientific publications of antimicrobial susceptibilities and resistance must be precise, with interpretations adjusted to a particular standard. Hence, the three objectives in this study were: (i) to describe the frequency of antimicrobial-resistant isolates of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) isolated from beef, pork, chicken meat, and other meat products; (ii) to describe the distribution of serovars and their multi-resistance to antibiotics for clinical use (veterinary and human) between 1996 and 2019; and (iii) to propose additional considerations that could improve the use and usefulness of the published results. Our results determined that the predominant isolates came from poultry. Enteritidis and Typhimurium were the most reported serovars by MIC (with both having the highest resistance to TET) while the lowest resistance was to CIP and CRO for Enteritidis and Typhimurium, respectively. The multi-resistance pattern AMP AMC CEP GEN KAN STR TET was the most frequently observed pattern by MIC in Montevideo and Seftenberg, while, for disc diffusion, the pattern AMP STR TET was the most frequent in the Bredeney serotype. In conclusion, researchers should carry out homogeneous sampling procedures, identify the types of the samples, use standard identification methods, and employ appropriate standards for antimicrobial susceptibility interpretation. Additionally, there is also a need for all WHO members to comply with the WHA 73.5 resolution. Our final recommendation is for all producers to reduce antibiotic prophylactic use.

Isolation, identification and some characteristics of two lytic bacteriophages against Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium from various food sources

Salmonellosis is an important worldwide food-borne disease. Increasing resistance to Salmonella spp. has been reported in recent years, and now the prevalence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella spp. is a worldwide problem. This necessitates alternative approaches like phage therapy. This study aimed to isolate bacteriophages specific for Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium isolated from different sources (chicken meat, beef and eggshells). The antibiotic resistance profiles of the bacteria were determined by phenotypic and genotypic methods. The prevalence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase genes was examined by polymerase chain reaction. In total, 75% of the isolated Salmonella strains were resistant to tetracycline, whereas 70% of them were resistant to azithromycin. All of the isolates from beef were resistant to nalidixic acid. The most common extended-spectrum β-lactamase genes among the isolates were blaSHV (15%) followed by blaTEM (10%) and blaCTX (5%). Two specific bacteriophages were isolated and characterized. The host range for vB_SparS-ui was Salmonella Paratyphi B, S. enterica serovar Paratyphi A and S. enterica, while that for vB_StyS-sam phage was Salmonella Typhimurium and S. enterica serovar Enteritidis. The characteristics of the isolated phages indicate that they are proper candidates to be used to control some foodstuff contaminations and also phage therapy of infected animals.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Biofilm Formation Capacity of Salmonella enterica Serovar Enteritidis Strains Isolated from Poultry and Humans in Poland

Salmonella enterica ser. Enteritidis (S. enterica ser. Enteritidis) is the most frequently detected serovar in human salmonellosis, and its ability to produce a biofilm and the risk of transmission from animals and food of animal origin to humans are significant. The main aim of the present work was to compare S. enterica ser. Enteritidis strains isolated from poultry and human feces in terms of resistance profiles, prevalence of selected resistance genes, and their potential for biofilm formation, by assessing their biofilm growth intensity, the prevalence and expression of selected genes associated with this phenomenon, and the correlation between increased antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation ability of the two tested groups of S. enterica ser. Enteritidis. This study showed a difference in antimicrobial resistance (minimal inhibitory concentration value) between S. enterica ser. Enteritidis groups; however, the majority of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains were isolated from poultry (environmental samples from chicken broilers, turkey broilers, and laying hens). Differences in the prevalence of resistance genes were observed; the most common gene among poultry strains was floR, and that among strains from humans was blaTEM. S. enterica ser. Enteritidis strains isolated from poultry under the tested incubation conditions exhibited better biofilm growth than strains isolated from humans. A higher level of gene expression associated with the production of cellulose was only detected in the S48 strain isolated from poultry. On the other hand, increased expression of genes associated with quorum sensing was observed in two strains isolated from poultry farms and one strain isolated from human feces.

Prevalence, abundance, serovars and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolated from retail raw poultry meat in China

This study investigated the prevalence and levels of Salmonella contamination of retail raw poultry meat in China, and examined serovar distribution and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the recovered isolates. In total, 664 poultry meat samples were collected from retail markets in 39 cities across China. Salmonella was isolated from 249 (37.5%) samples, including 190 (36.7%) chicken, 48 (40.7%) duck and 11 (39.2%) pigeon samples. The most probable number (MPN) values of 36.1% of the positive samples ranged from 0.3 to 10 MPN/g, with three samples exceeding 110 MPN/g. Among the 667 Salmonella isolates, 35 serovars and 42 multilocus sequence typing patterns were identified. Predominant serovars included Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (32.7%), Salmonella enterica serovar Indiana (14.2%) and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (11.9%), while two novel STs were identified (ST7352 and ST7612). Except for one unnamed strain (4,12:d:-), all of the identified serovars have previously been linked to human infections. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the 318 non-duplicate isolates revealed that only 5 (1.6%) were susceptible to all 22 tested antimicrobials, while 191 (60.1%) exhibited resistance to at least three classes of antimicrobials. The highest levels of resistance were observed for nalidixic acid (72.3%), followed by ampicillin (55.3%) and streptomycin (48.7%). Of particular concern was the detection of highly multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Indiana isolates, most (84.1%) of which showed co-resistance to ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone. Overall, our findings showed a high prevalence of Salmonella contamination of retail raw poultry meat, which could expose consumers to multidrug-resistant isolates. This study provides comprehensive data for evaluation of new control measures for Salmonella contamination of poultry.

Incidence and Characterization of Salmonella Isolates From Raw Meat Products Sold at Small Markets in Hubei Province, China

Salmonella is a leading cause of foodborne disease and is often associated with the consumption of foods of animal origin. In this study, sixty-six Salmonella isolates were obtained from 631 raw meat samples purchased at small retail suppliers in Hubei Province, China. The most prevalent Salmonella serotypes were Thompson (18.2%) and Agona (13.6%). Frequent antimicrobial resistance was observed for the sulfonamides (43.9%), tetracycline (43.9%), and the β-lactams amoxicillin and ampicillin (36.4% for each). Interestingly, a high incidence of resistance to cephazolin was observed in strains of the most common serotype, S. Thompson. Class I integrons were found in 27.3% (18/66) of the isolates and five of these integrons contained different gene cassettes (aacA4C-arr-3-dfr2, dfrA12-aadA21, aadA2, dfrA12-aadA2, dfr17-aadA5). Additional antimicrobial resistance genes, including bla _TEM-1, bla _CTX-M-65, bla _CTX-M-15, qnrB, and qnrS, were also identified among these Salmonella isolates. Results of replicon typing and conjugation experiments revealed that an integron with qnrB and bla _CTX-M-15 genes was present on incH12 mobile plasmid in S. Thompson strain. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis revealed 32 sequence types, indicating that these isolates were phenotypically and genetically diverse, among which ST26 (18.2%) and ST541 (12.1%) were the predominant sequence types. The integrons, along with multiple antimicrobial resistance genes on mobile plasmids, are likely contributors to the dissemination of multidrug resistance in Salmonella.

Prevalence, Bacterial Load, and Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella Serovars Isolated From Retail Meat and Meat Products in China

Salmonella remains the leading cause of reported bacterial foodborne disease in China. Meat products are recognized as one of the major sources of human salmonellosis; however, there is a lack of comprehensive, quantitative data concerning Salmonella contamination of these foods. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to investigate the prevalence, bacterial load, and antimicrobial resistance profiles of various Salmonella serovars in retail meat across the whole of China. Between July 2011 and June 2016, a total of 807 retail meat samples were collected, covering most provincial capitals in China. Overall, 159 (19.7%) samples tested positive for Salmonella. The highest contamination rate occurred in pork (37.3%, n = 287), followed by beef (16.1%, n = 161), mutton (10.9%, n = 92), dumplings (6.6%, n = 212), and smoked pork (3.6%, n = 55). Most probable number (MPN) analysis revealed that contamination was mainly in the range of 0.3–10 MPN/g among those samples testing positive using this method (n = 83), with eight samples exceeding 110 MPN/g. Among the 456 Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica isolates obtained in this study, 29 serovars and 33 multilocus sequence typing patterns were identified, with S. Derby, S. Typhimurium, S. London, S. Rissen, S. 1,4,[5],12:i:-, S. Weltevreden, and S. Enteritidis being the most prevalent. Among the 218 non-duplicate isolates, 181 (83.0%) were resistant to at least one class of antimicrobials and 128 (58.7%) were resistant to at least three classes. High rates of resistance were observed for tetracycline (65.6%), ampicillin (45.4%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (40.8%), streptomycin (40.4%), and nalidixic acid (35.8%), with the seven most prevalent serovars, except S. Weltevreden, showing higher rates of resistance and multidrug resistance compared with the less dominant serovars. Of note, all S. Indiana isolates exhibited resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins (including ceftriaxone and cefepime), ciprofloxacin, and multiple other classes of antibiotics. Further, two S. 1,4,[5],12:i:- isolates showed resistance to imipenem. This study provides systematic and comprehensive data on the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of various Salmonella serovars isolated from meat products in China, indicating their potential risk to public health.

Prevalence and Antibiotic Resistance of Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium in Ground Beef and Meatball Samples in Samsun, Turkey

The aims of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of Salmonella spp., including S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, their antibiotic resistance profiles, and the presence/absence of class 1 integron (intI1) in 50 raw ground beef and 50 raw, meatball samples collected in the Samsun Province, Turkey. For the detection of Salmonella, conventional culture technique and PCR assay were used. The antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates against nine antibiotics were tested. Salmonella spp. was detected in 20 (n = 86 isolates) samples, namely 12 ground beef and 8 meatball samples. Salmonella Enteritidis (n = 12; 24 isolates) or S. Typhimurium (n = 3; 6 isolates) was detected in 15 (75.00%, n = 30 isolates) samples. At least one species-specific gene (oriC or invA) was detected in the isolates. All isolates were sensitive to two of the third-generation cephalosporins and also nalidixic acid. There was a different level of multidrug resistance (MDR) between S. Enteritidis and Typhimurium isolates. Class 1 integron was detected in four samples (n = 7 isolates); seven isolates were S. Enteritidis and four out of the seven S. Enteritidis isolates were also MDR. In conclusion, the presence of Salmonella, particularly S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, in ground beef and meatballs may cause foodborne infections. The presence of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella and S. Enteritidis with the Cls1integron is important for horizontal antibiotic gene transfer.

Detection and characterization of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis as an emerging threat in poultry farms of Faisalabad, Pakistan

AIMS

The aim of this study was the molecular identification of Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis (S. Infantis) isolated from poultry samples and their antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiling.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 149 isolates, belonging to genus Salmonella, originally isolated from 340 suspected poultry post mortem specimens reported by us earlier were preliminary identified as Salmonella by biochemical methods and confirmed by polymerase chain reaction targeting genus-specific gene invA. Targeting serovar-specific gene fragment (fljB) resulted in confirmation of 54 isolates as S. Infantis which were further confirmed by sequencing of 16S RNA and fljB genes. Swimming and swarming motilities were detected in 98·1 and 11·1% isolates respectively. Phenotypic disc diffusion assay against 23 antimicrobial agents showed the highest resistance against pefloxacin (PEF) (94·4%), chloramphenicol (83·3%) and imipenem (77·7%) while 5·3% isolates showed extended-spectrum β-lactamase production. Fifty-nine genes reported for antimicrobial resistance and 12 for conferring virulence were targeted. The most prevalent resistance gene for aminoglycosides was aadA (42·3%), for quinolone resistance determining region parE (62·5%), for penicillin's Int1 (62·9%), for chloramphenicol cat3 (66·1%) and for beta-lactams bla_{TEM -1} (44·4%). Among efflux pump coding genes, armA showed highest (74·2%) prevalence and for virulence, a high prevalence of SopE (89·2%) showed the zoonotic potential of the isolates. The activity of efflux pumps was detected through Ethidium Bromide-agar method.

CONCLUSIONS

Poultry could act as reservoirs of multidrug resistance Salmonella.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

We firstly report the prevalence and molecular characterization of virulence/drug resistance in S. Infantis from this region and the results may contribute to designing precisely targeted therapy. This study has also highlighted the possible emergence of S. Infantis with zoonotic potential.

Prevalence, Serotyping, Molecular Typing, and Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella Isolated From Conventional and Organic Retail Ground Poultry

Ground poultry is marketed as a healthier alternative to ground beef despite the fact that poultry is a major source of foodborne Salmonella. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of Salmonella in Oklahoma retail ground poultry and to characterize representative isolates by serotyping, antimicrobial resistance, PFGE patterns, and large plasmid profiling. A total of 199 retail ground poultry samples (150 ground turkey and 49 ground chicken) were investigated. The overall prevalence of Salmonella in ground poultry was 41% (82/199), and the incidence in conventional samples (47%, 66/141) was higher than in organic samples (27%, 16/58). The prevalence of Salmonella in organic ground chicken and organic ground turkey was 33% (3/9) and 26% (13/49), respectively. Twenty six Salmonella isolates (19 conventional and 7 organic) were chosen for further characterization. The following six serotypes and number of isolates per serotype were identified as follows: Tennessee, 8; Saintpaul, 4; Senftenberg, 4; Anatum, 4 (one was Anatum_var._15+); Ouakam, 3; and Enteritidis, 3. Resistance to 16 tested antimicrobials was as follows: gentamycin, 100% (26/26); ceftiofur, 100% (26/26); amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, 96% (25/26); streptomycin, 92% (24/26); kanamycin, 88% (23/26); ampicillin, 85% (22/26); cephalothin, 81% (21/26); tetracycline, 35% (9/26); sulfisoxazole, 27% (7/26); nalidixic acid, 15% (4/26); and cefoxitin, 15% (4/26). All isolates were susceptible to amikacin, chloramphenicol, ceftriaxone, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. All screened isolates were multidrug resistant (MDR) and showed resistance to 4-10 antimicrobials; isolates from organic sources showed resistance to 5-7 antimicrobials. PFGE was successful in clustering the Salmonella isolates into distinct clusters that each represented one serotype. PFGE was also used to investigate the presence of large plasmids using S1 nuclease digestion. A total of 8/26 (31%) Salmonella isolates contained a ∼100 Kb plasmid that was present in all Anatum and Ouakam isolates. In conclusion, the presence of multidrug resistant Salmonella with various serotypes, PFGE profiles, and large plasmids in ground poultry stresses the importance of seeking novel interventions to reduce the risk of this foodborne pathogen. Multidrug resistance (MDR) is considered a high additional risk and continued surveillance at the retail level could minimize the risk for the consumer.

Combating Antimicrobial Resistance in Foodborne Microorganisms

This review addresses an important public health hazard affecting food safety. Antimicrobial agents are used in foods to reduce or eliminate microorganisms that cause disease. Many traditional organic compounds, novel synthetic organic agents, natural products, peptides, and proteins have been extensively studied for their effectiveness as antimicrobial agents against foodborne Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Listeria spp. and Salmonella. However, antimicrobial resistance can develop in microorganisms, enhancing their ability to withstand the inhibiting or killing action of antimicrobial agents. Knowledge gaps still exist with regard to the actual chemical and microbiological mechanisms that must be identified to facilitate the search for new antimicrobial agents. Technical implementation of antimicrobial active packing films and coatings against target microorganisms must also be improved for extended product shelf life. Recent advances in antimicrobial susceptibility testing can provide researchers with new momentum to pursue their quest for a resistance panacea.

The anti-infective activity of punicalagin against Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhimurium in mice

Punicalagin, a major bioactive component of pomegranate peel, has an anti-infective effect againstS. typhimuriuminfection in mice.