Heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in commercial ready-to-eat meat products on UK market

Intricate relationship among major heat-induced harmful by-products and modulating role of lipid and protein oxidation in seafood: A comprehensive review

Seafood is an important constituent of our diet and well-known for its high-quality proteins and lipids (especially polyunsaturated fatty acids). While thermal processing imparts unique flavors to seafood, it also generates heat-induced harmful by-products (HHBs), such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which pose a serious threat to human health in the long run. This manuscript provides an overview of the formation mechanisms of PAHs, HAAs, and AGEs, and their occurrence in seafood. The main body of it deals with their potential crosstalk and the modulatory role of lipid and protein oxidation in their formation. Additionally, major strategies for the control of HHBs as well as their impact on the nutritional and sensory quality of seafood in the last two decades are also reviewed. Finally, challenges associated with the control of multiple HHBs in seafood and future outlooks are discussed. Literature data support that different types of HHBs are formed from different and yet subtly interconnected pathways, such as the Maillard reaction, pyrolysis, and lipid and protein oxidation. In particular, certain precursors (e.g., reactive amino acids) and intermediates (e.g., reactive carbonyls) are key intersections. However, only limited literature has been available thus far on the simultaneous control of multiple HHBs. Given their potential health hazards, more comprehensive studies with the aid of advanced analytical techniques and software will be needed to unravel their intricate relationships, which would facilitate the establishment of strategies to achieve simultaneous control of multiple HHBs.

Food Safety Aspects as Potential Impediment to the Adoption of Plant-Based Alternative Protein Products in Sub-Saharan Africa

The emergence and use of alternative proteins that seem to provide a sustainable solution to feeding the growing human population going into the future continue to gain momentum. However, there is not much research work on the safety of foods formulated using alternative proteins such as those of plant origin, aka plant-based foods. Therefore, this review discusses the safety issues of producing and processing plant-based foods. Special attention is paid to sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the impact of climate change is felt, resulting in poor crop yields and reduced ability for thriving livestock production to serve as food for human consumption. Thus, the adoption of alternative plant-based foods would be a good strategy to combat issues such as poor nutrition status that continue to be a plight to this region. There are safety concerns that relate to the introduction of alternative plant-based protein foods which need to be overcome for these foods to be adopted in many food systems. The following safety concerns pertaining to plant-based food production and processing were identified in the literature and are discussed in this work; the presence of allergens (from ingredients like soy, gluten, and nuts), anti-nutritional factors (such as saponins, alkaloids, and isoflavones), mycotoxins, potential contamination with pathogenic microorganisms (e.g., Salmonella spp., E. coli, Bacillus spp., Listeria spp., Clostridium sporogenes, and Geobacillus stearothermophilus), and the existence of potential carcinogens formed during processing (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, and nitrosamines), among others. This review concludes by recommending a thorough risk assessment of plant-based protein foods to ensure wider successful adoption and use of plant-based alternative food and protein products in SSA.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Polish Traditionally and Industrially Smoked Meats as an Element of Monitoring and PAH Reduction Strategies

This work aimed to analyze the PAH content in products smoked in traditional smokehouses with direct and indirect heat sources and in an industrial way as an element of PAH content monitoring in Polish market products. This research material comprised 12 smoked meats (W) and 38 sausages (K), medium or coarsely minced. The content of benzo(a)pyrene and the total content of four marker PAHs was determined by GC-MS. The analysis showed a significantly higher level of PAH contamination in products smoked using traditional methods. The results also indicate that the natural casing is not a barrier against PAH contamination during traditional smoking, and a higher degree of meat fragmentation, together with a small cross-section, increases the PAH content in this technological group. Concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene exceeding the permissible levels were found in the sausages smoked for more than 60 min. As part of the strategies for reducing the PAH content, among others, changing the furnace to an indirect one, shortening the time, lowering the smoking temperature, using artificial casings or removing casings before consumption, drying the product surface before the smoking process, using seasoned and bark-free wood, as well as additional smokehouse equipment, are recommended.

Inhibitory Effects of Fruit Powders on the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Charcoal-Grilled Pork

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), carcinogenic substances primarily formed through pyrolysis and oxidation of fat at high cooking temperatures, are commonly found at high levels in grilled meats. Reducing PAHs formation by incorporating natural antioxidants, such as through marination, has been demonstrated to be effective. However, the inhibitory effect of fresh phenolic-rich fruit powders on PAHs formation in charcoal-grilled meats remains unknown. To clarify the application of the fruit powders, 15 experimental groups were conducted. All pretreatment techniques (spraying, marinating, and mixing) were applied across all four freeze-dried fruit powders (lemon, guava, papaya, and mango). Each method was systematically tested with each fruit powder to evaluate its effect on inhibiting the formation of the four PAHs (BaA, CHR, BbF, and BaP) in charcoal-grilled pork belly and loin. Firstly, guava powder exhibited the highest phenolic content and antioxidant activity compared to the lemon, papaya, and mango powders (p < 0.05), among which the main phenolic compounds were ellagic acid, quercetin, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). Further, marination of pork belly with guava powder exhibited the highest inhibition rate of PAHs (94.8%), followed by lemon (91.1%), papaya (89.8%), and mango (89.0%), with a statistically significant difference at p < 0.05. The reduction in estimated daily intake (EDI) and the increase in the margin of exposure (MOE) indicate that consuming grilled meat treated with these fruit powders poses no safety concerns and may potentially reduce health risks. Finally, the sensory evaluation showed that marinating with guava powder did not perceptibly affect the sensory attributes of the meat. Overall, this study provides a potent strategy for inhibiting the formation of PAHs in meat during charcoal grilling by incorporating fruit powder while preserving sensory qualities.

Formation and Reduction of Toxic Compounds Derived from the Maillard Reaction During the Thermal Processing of Different Food Matrices

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), acrylamide (AA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic substances that are produced in certain foods during thermal processing by using common high-temperature unit operations such as frying, baking, roasting, grill cooking, extrusion, among others. Understanding the formation pathways of these potential risk factors, which can cause cancer or contribute to the development of many chronic diseases in humans, is crucial for reducing their occurrence in thermally processed foods. During thermal processing, food rich in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids undergoes a crucial Maillard reaction, leading to the production of highly active carbonyl compounds. These compounds then react with other substances to form harmful substances, which ultimately affect negatively the health of the human body. Although these toxic compounds differ in various forms of formation, they all partake in the common Maillard pathway. This review primarily summarizes the occurrence, formation pathways, and reduction measures of common toxic compounds during the thermal processing of food, based on independent studies for each specific contaminant in its corresponding food matrix. Finally, it provides several approaches for the simultaneous reduction of multiple toxic compounds.

A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are stable carcinogens that are widely distributed in the environment and food, and humans are exposed to PAHs primarily through the respiratory tracts, dermal contact, and dietary intake. Meat products are an essential part of the human diet, and the formation of PAHs during meat processing is unavoidable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of PAHs in meat products can be a contribution to the minimization of human exposure dose. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the toxicological analysis of PAHs intake and the various production pathways. The distribution of different PAHs in various meat products, including poultry and aquatic products, is analyzed. The discussion focuses on controlling PAHs through the use of endogenous marinades and antioxidants as well as reducing exogenous particulate matter-PAHs attachment. In addition, potential strategies for PAHs reduction and possible directions for future research are proposed.

Review of the Terminology, Approaches, and Formulations Used in the Guidelines on Quantitative Risk Assessment of Chemical Hazards in Food

This paper reviews the published terminology, mathematical models, and the possible approaches used to characterise the risk of foodborne chemical hazards, particularly pesticides, metals, mycotoxins, acrylamide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results confirmed the wide variability of the nomenclature used, e.g., 28 different ways of referencing exposure, 13 of cancer risk, or 9 of slope factor. On the other hand, a total of 16 equations were identified to formulate all the risk characterisation parameters of interest. Therefore, the present study proposes a terminology and formulation for some risk characterisation parameters based on the guidelines of international organisations and the literature review. The mathematical model used for non-genotoxic hazards is a ratio in all cases. However, the authors used the probability of cancer or different ratios, such as the margin of exposure (MOE) for genotoxic hazards. For each effect studied per hazard, the non-genotoxic effect was mostly studied in pesticides (79.73%), the genotoxic effect was mostly studied in PAHs (71.15%), and both effects were mainly studied in metals (59.4%). The authors of the works reviewed generally opted for a deterministic approach, although most of those who assessed the risk for mycotoxins or the ratio and risk for acrylamide used the probabilistic approach.

The Antiproliferative Activity of Adiantum pedatum Extract and/or Piceatannol in Phenylhydrazine-Induced Colon Cancer in Male Albino Rats: The miR-145 Expression of the PI-3K/Akt/p53 and Oct4/Sox2/Nanog Pathways

Colon cancer is one of the most common types of cancer worldwide, and its incidence is increasing. Despite advances in medical science, the treatment of colon cancer still poses a significant challenge. This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of Adiantum pedatum (AP) extract and/or piceatannol on colon cancer induced via phenylhydrazine (PHZ) in terms of the antioxidant and apoptotic pathways and histopathologic changes in the colons of male albino rats. The rats were randomly divided into eight groups: control, AP extract, piceatannol (P), PHZ, PHZ and AP treatments, PHZ and P treatments, PHZ and both AP and P, and PHZ and prophylaxis with both AP and P. The results demonstrated that PHZ induced oxidative damage, apoptosis, and histopathological changes compared to the control group. However, the administration of AP or P or AP + P as therapy or prophylaxis significantly ameliorated these changes and upregulated the colonic mir-145 and mRNA expression of P53 and PDCD-4 while downregulating the colonic mRNA expression of PI3K, AKT, c-Myc, CK-20, SOX-2, OCT-4, and NanoG compared to the PHZ group. These findings suggest that the candidate drugs may exert their anti-cancer effects through multiple mechanisms, including antioxidant and apoptotic activities.

Effect of curcumin on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled chicken wings

Organic macromolecules form carcinogenic and toxic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) under high temperature baking. Thus, this study investigated the effects and inhibition pathways of different curcumin concentrations (0.01, 0.05, 0.25, 0.3 mg/g) on seven PAHs in grilled chicken wings. The results demonstrated that curcumin concentrations displayed positive effects in inhibiting the formation of PAHs (16%-72%), increasing the total phenolic content (397.5-1934.4 mg/g) and free radical scavenging activity, and reducing TBARS values (31.15%-47.76%) and fatty acid content. Additionally, PCA and Pearson correlation analyses indicated that lipid oxidation (r = 0.42) and unsaturated fatty acids (r = 0.55) could promote the production of PAHs, while DPPH, ABTS and TPC could counteract their facilitation of PAHs. In conclusion, the addition of appropriate amounts of curcumin before grilling is a feasible strategy to reduce fat oxidation levels and the number of free radicals for the purpose of limiting PAHs content.

Recent Evidence on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure

This review provides a comprehensive conclusion of the relationship between the intake of various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and different dietary patterns, pointing to the accompanying potential health risks. To achieve this, existing pertinent research was collected and analyzed. The collation revealed that the concentration of PAHs in food and their dietary patterns were diverse in different regions. Specifically, the concentration of PAHs in food was found to be related to the level of pollution in the area, including soil, air, and water pollution, which is then accumulated through the food chain into food that can be ingested directly by the human body, resulting in malformations in offspring, increased risk of cancer, and gene mutation. Guidebooks and dietary surveys were consulted to uncover disparities in dietary patterns, which indicated regional variations in taste preferences, traditional foods, and eating habits. Different regions are spatially categorized in this assessment by cities, countries, and continents. Notably, smoking and grilling are two of the food processing methods most likely to produce high levels of PAHs. To prevent excessive intake of PAHs from food items and attain a higher quality of life, more health education is urgently needed to promote healthy eating patterns.

Effect of beef patties fortification with black garlic on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content and toxic potency

Nine different black garlic samples aged at varying temperatures and durations were added to the patties at 0.5% and 1% ratios and compared with raw garlic in terms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) formation. The results showed that black garlic caused a reduction in the patties' content of ∑PAH8 by 38.17% to 94.12% compared to raw garlic, with the highest reduction percent in the patties fortified with 1% black garlic aged at 70 °C for 45 days. Beef patties fortified with black garlic reduced human exposure to PAHs from beef patties (from 1.66E to 01 to 6.04E-02 ng-TEQ_BaP kg^-1 bw per day). The negligible cancer risk associated with exposure to PAHs through the consumption of beef patties was confirmed by very low ILCR (incremental lifetime cancer risk) values of 5.44E-14 and 4.75E-12. Finally, patty fortification with black garlic could be suggested as an effective way to reduce PAHs formation and exposure from patties.

Inhibition of benzo[a]pyrene formation in charcoal-grilled pork sausages by ginger and its key compounds

BACKGROUND

Ginger and its extracts have been frequently used in food processing and pharmaceuticals. However, the influence of ginger and its key compounds on benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) production in meat processing has not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of application of ginger and its important active ingredients on BaP formation and the mechanism of inhibiting BaP formation in charcoal-grilled pork sausages.

RESULTS

The DPPH scavenging (23.59-59.67%) activity and the inhibition rate of BaP (42.1-68.9%) were significantly increased (P < 0.05) with increasing ginger addition. The active components extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide from ginger were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and 14 representative compounds (four terpenes, two alcohols, two aldehydes, four phenols and two other compounds, totaling 77.57% of the detected compounds) were selected. The phenolic compounds (eugenol, 6-gingerol, 6-paradol and 6-shogaol, accounting for 29.73% of the total composition) in ginger played a key role and had the strongest inhibitory effect on BaP (61.2-68.2%), whereas four other kinds of compound showed obviously feeble inhibitory activity (6.47-17.9%). Charcoal-grilled sausages with phenolic substances had lower values of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, carbonyl and diene (three classic indicators of lipid oxidation) (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Ginger and its key compounds could effectively inhibit the formation of BaP in charcoal-grilled pork sausages. Phenolic compounds make the strongest contribution to the inhibition of Bap formation, and the inhibitory mechanism was related to the inhibition of lipid oxidation. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Interaction between Chinese quince fruit proanthocyanidins and bovine serum albumin: Antioxidant activity, thermal stability and heterocyclic amine inhibition

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are carcinogenic and mutagenic substances produced in fried meat. Adding natural antioxidants (e.g., proanthocyanidins (PAs)) is a common method to reduce HCAs; however, the interaction between the PAs and protein can affect the inhibitory efficacy of PAs on the formation of HCAs. In this study, two PAs (F1 and F2) with different degrees of polymerization (DP) were extracted from Chinese quince fruits. These were combined with bovine serum albumin (BSA). The thermal stability, antioxidant capacity and HCAs inhibition of all four (F1, F2, F1-BSA, F2-BSA) were compared. The results showed that F1 and F2 interact with BSA to form complexes. Circular dichroism spectra indicate that complexes had fewer α-helices and more β-sheets, β-turns and random coils than BSA. Molecular docking studies indicated that hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions are the forces holding the complexes together. The thermal stabilities of F1 and, particularly, F2 were stronger than those of F1-BSA and F2-BSA. Interestingly, F1-BSA and F2-BSA showed increased antioxidant activity with increasing temperature. F1-BSA's and F2-BSA's HCAs inhibition was stronger than F1 and F2, reaching 72.06 % and 76.3 %, respectively, for norharman. This suggests that PAs can be used as natural antioxidants for reducing the HCAs in fried foods.

Influence of Partial Replacements of NaCl by KCl on Quality Characteristics and the Heterocyclic Aromatic Amine Contents of Bacon

The influence of partial replacements of NaCl by KCl (0, 10, 20, and 30%) on the heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAAs) contents and quality characteristics of bacon were investigated. The Na⁺ content, moisture, a_w, pH, L* value, and sensory saltiness decreased and K⁺ content, a* value, and sensory bitterness increased significantly with increased substituting rates of NaCl by KCl (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences between the control and KCl substitution samples for the b* value, redness, and sensory off-odor (p > 0.05). The creatine content was not affected by the different KCl-substituting rates during the marinating process (p > 0.05), but it diminished in the smoking and frying processes (p < 0.05). The increase in the KCl-substituting rates increased the total heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) contents in fried bacon (p < 0.05). Moreover, the nonpolar HAA content in bacon was higher than the polar HAA content (p < 0.05). In summary, the partial replacement of NaCl by KCl increased the total HAA content and led to changes in bacon quality.

Nitrosamines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoke-Cured Bacon (Larou) of Artisanal and Industrial Origin

The aim of this study was to compare the nitrosamines (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of Chinese smoke-cured bacon (Larou) of artisanal and industrial origin. The results showed that the average pH and Aw values of family-made Larou products were lower than those of industrial Larou, which was opposite to the TBARS level. The contents of residual nitrite and PAH4 in two artisanal Larou were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The highest NA content (10.78 μg/kg) was found in family-made Larou. A correlation analysis indicated that the relationships between residual nitrite contents and total PAH8 contents (τ = 0.692, p < 0.01) and total NAs contents (τ = 0.805, p < 0.01) were characterized with a positive correlation. A principal component analysis indicated that the Larou from the industrial sources had similar safety attributes, and was more stable than the Larou processed in an artisanal manner. Our data suggest that Larou produced in industrial conditions is suitable for consumption.

Comparative analysis of conventional and greener extraction methods and method validation for analyzing PAHs in cooked chicken and roasted coffee

This study compared different extraction methods [sonication, alkaline hydrolysis, supramolecular solvent microextraction (SUPRAS) and Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS)] along with their greenness. An analytical method was validated for determination of USEPA's listed 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons' (PAHs) in cooked chicken and roasted coffee using high pressure liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) with a C18 column. The recoveries with QuEChERS ranged between 62.26 and 103.85% (except Naphthalene and Fluorene) and 52.63-78.69% (except Naphthalene) for chicken and coffee respectively while poor recoveries were observed with conventional methods. With SUPRAS, heavy PAHs' recovery in chicken was 71.33-112.23%. Limits of detection (LOD) were 0.03-0.06 ng/mL, regression coefficient values were 0.97-0.99 for 6.25-37.50 ng/mL quantification range. Relative standard deviation was found to be below 22%. The time and energy consumption per sample was 42.50 and 69.06 fold and 77.52 and 139.50 fold less with SUPRAS and QuEChERS method respectively as compared to alkaline hydrolysis.

Recent (2011-2017) foodborne outbreak cases in the Republic of Korea compared to the United States: a review

This study analyzes and compares foodborne disease outbreaks reported in the Republic of Korea (KR) and the United States (US) during 2011-2017. The foodborne outbreaks data in the KR and the US were collected from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety and from the Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks United States, respectively. The average number of outbreaks and illness population were higher in the US than in the KR, but the KR's illness ratio considering population size was 2.4 times higher than that of the US. When the sites of outbreaks compared, the number of illness was the highest at schools in the KR whereas outbreaks at restaurants were more frequent in the US. In the KR, bacterial infections were the primary cause of outbreaks while bacterial and viral infections accounted for the largest share of outbreaks in the US. Specifically, pathogenic E. coli presented a significant risk in the KR whereas Salmonella was the most prevalent in the US. These results indicate that the main microbiological targets for detection and control in the KR should differ from the US, which should be considered for developing food safety related policies.

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines in barbecued meatballs formulated with different animal fats

The formations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in barbecued meatballs formulated with different animal fats [beef intermuscular and/or sheep tail (ST)] were investigated. Meatballs were also analyzed in terms of some qualitative and quantitative properties. From perspective of nutrition, meatballs formulated with ST fat at level 10% contained the highest ratios of linoleic acid (2.29%), ∑PUFA (2.52%), and ∑PUFA/∑SFA (0.05). Animal fat type had no significant effect on total HAAs amount of the samples and total HAAs amount was ranged between 1.35 and 2.91 ng/g. On the other hand, the usage of different animal fat significantly affected amount of BaP and PAH4, and the levels of BaP and PAH4 were ranged between 2.33-4.30 and 8.41-15.48 ng/g, respectively. From perspective of health risk, it can be noted that the meatballs formulated with ST fat at level 10% are more risky due to their total amounts of food toxicants.

Evaluating the effects of temperature and time on heterocyclic aromatic amine profiles in roasted pork using combined UHPLC-MS/MS and multivariate analysis

In this study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) combined with principal component analysis (PCA) were used to investigate the effects of process conditions on the profiles of carcinogenic and mutagenic heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) in the pork roasted at 175 °C, 200 °C, 225 °C and 250 °C for 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 min. Twelve HAAs from four categories, including carboline (Norharman, Harman, and Phe-p-1), imidazopyridine (PhIP, 4'-OH-PhIP, DMIP, and 1,5,6-TMIP), imidazoquinoline (IQ, IQ [4,5-b], and MeIQ), and imidazoquinoxaline (MeIQx and 4,8-DiMeIQx), were detected, quantified and used to compose the HAA profiles in roasted pork. After being Analyzed by PCA, the distributions of HAA profiles from different temperature on the PCA score plot demonstrated that there are significant differences among the HAA profiles from different temperatures. The loading plot also showed that PhIP, 4'-OH-PhIP, IQ[4,5-b], and MeIQ were mainly responsible for the difference. The profiles from higher temperature distribute more scattered than the lower ones, illustrating that the time effects on the HAA profiles from higher temperature are stronger than the lower ones. Comparing the score and loading plots of different heating times, the diversities of the HAA profiles at different temperatures increased under prolonged heating because of the changingpyridines levels. The results of PCA that comparing the HAA from different categories displayed that the formation features of four categories HAAs were significantly differed because of their formation discrepancy under low temperatures and short-term roasting. Using HAA profiles as an entirety, these findings obtained in this study are more close to the real process of HAA formation in roasted pork, and make the complex effects of temperature and time on multiple HAA formations more simply to be concluded.

Heterocyclic aromatic amine level and quality characteristics of selected Harbin red sausages in the northern Chinese market

The heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) level and quality characteristics of selected Harbin red sausages in the northern Chinese market and the possible differences between traditional sausages and conventional sausages were evaluated in this study. Four varieties of traditional sausages and four varieties of conventional sausages were selected. Compared to conventional sausages, traditional sausages had lower moisture content and higher hardness (P < 0.05). Twelve HAAs were evaluated and eight HAAs were detected. The total HAA content was as high as 360.73 ng/g. In particular, the contents of Norharman and Harman were much higher than those of the other HAAs (P < 0.05). Additionally, the HAA contents were higher in the traditional sausages than those in the conventional sausages (P < 0.05). Principal component analysis showed that traditional and conventional sausages had a good separation based on the quality characteristics and total HAA level. The results of this study will provide useful information on the industrial production of smoked meat products.

β-carbolines norharman and harman in vegetable oils in China

The beta-carbolines norharman and harman, two heterocyclic aromatic amines with potential mutagenicity, have been determined in vegetable oils. Identification and analysis were carried out by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). In 88 samples analysed, the concentrations of norharman and harman were < LOD to 336.22 ng/g and < LOD to 505.14 ng/g, respectively. A high variability of norharman and harman levels among different oil types was observed. Sesame-, flaxseed-, sunflower seed-, peanut- and rapeseed oils were most contaminated. Both β-carbolines were most likely formed during roasting of the oilseeds. Oil consumption, especially of oils obtained after roasting of the seeds, was a major dietary source of the β-carbolines norharman and harman. Under existing oil risk factors, this investigation contributes to the unprecedented and essential information for dietary assessments associated with oil consumption.

The Inhibitory Effects of Heterotrigona Itama Honey Marinades on the Formation of Carcinogenic Heterocyclic Amines in Grilled Beef Satay

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are carcinogenic food toxicants formed in cooked meats, which may increase the risk of cancer development in humans. Therefore, in this study, the effect of stingless bee honey from different botanical origins on the formation of HCAs in grilled beef satay was investigated. HCAs concentration in grilled beef satay was determined by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In total, six of the most toxigenic HCAs representing aminoimidazo-azaarenes (AIAs) (MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP) and amino carbolines (norharman, harman, and AαC) groups were identified in all the beef samples investigated. A significant reduction in HCAs was observed in grilled beef marinated in honey as compared to beef samples marinated in table sugar (control), in which the reduction of 95.14%, 88.45%, 85.65%, and 57.22% was observed in gelam, starfruit, acacia, and Apis honey marinades, respectively. According to the partial least squares regression (PLS) model, the inhibition of HCAs in grilled beef was shown to be significantly correlated to the antioxidant activity (IC50) of the honey samples. Therefore, the results of this study revealed that the addition of stingless bee honey could play an important role in reducing HCAs in grilled beef.

Preventive potential and mechanism of dietary polyphenols on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines

Thermal processing is the most important and popular domestic cooking method. More than 30 heterocyclic aromatic amines have been identified in cooked meat using various methods. This review highlights preventive potential and mechanism of dietary polyphenols on the formation of heterocyclic amines. Tea, coffee, fruits, vegetable, and spice extracts rich in polyphenols exerted significant inhibition against the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines. Some polyphenols, such as naringenin and epigallocatechin 3‐O‐gallate, can actively participate into food chemistry reaction to trap Strecker aldehyde and lower the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines. In addition, some polyphenols can lower the mutagenicity of heterocyclic aromatic amines. More specifically, polyphenols possessing two hydroxyl groups at the meta position of aromatic ring are the most efficient one, but the presence of carboxylic or alkyl groups as substituents in the aromatic ring slightly reduced the inhibitory effect.

Heterocyclic amines in braised chicken may mainly infiltrate from reused marinade during braising, instead of thermic generation

BACKGROUND

Sauce braised meat products are popular in Asia, although their complicated processing may lead to potential safety risks. Especially, how hazardous compounds are formed during their preparation is still unclear. In the present study, braised chicken breasts, which are a typical Chinese sauce braised meat product, were used to investigate the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) during heat treatment.

RESULTS

Precursor content (creatine and reducing sugar), HCA level and temperature were measured in different parts of the chicken breast at each processing stage. The results obtained showed that the increasing trends of total HCA content in different parts of chicken breast were not the same. Only total HCA content in the skin (4.93 ± 0.80 ng g^-1 ) increased significantly after deep-frying. During braising, total HCA level in the skin was high (12.1-14.3 ng g^-1 ) and relatively stable. However, total HCA content in pectoralis major muscle (3.90-7.40 ng g^-1 ) and pectoralis minor muscle (1.44-5.31 ng g^-1 ) was much lower than in the skin, and increased steadily with braising time.

CONCLUSION

Braising is the main factor which affects HCA level in braised chicken. Combining the results of temperature and precursor content, a possible explanation for the large amount of HCAs in braised chicken is the gradual infiltration from reused marinade, instead of thermic generation. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination of traditionally grilled pork marketed in South Benin and health risk assessment for the Beninese consumer

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination was monitored in grilled pork sold in Beninese street restaurants, as well as in grilled pork from a well-controlled experiment replicating traditional grilling using Acacia auriculiformis wood as fuel. Fifteen PAHs were analysed using a high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled with fluorescence detection. To assess the risk for the consumer, the margins of exposure (MOEs) were calculated, as the ratio between benchmark PAHs levels and consumer intakes. A MOE below 10,000 indicates a concern for human health for carcinogenic compounds such as PAHs. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) levels up to 17.9 and 53.6 µg/kg were found in grilled pork sampled in restaurants and from the controlled experiment, respectively. When considering both median estimated daily intake and median PAHs contamination levels, MOEs calculated for Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) alone, or for the sum of 2, 4 or 8 PAHs were above 10,000, meaning no risk in these cases. However, for the same PAHs contamination level, MOE for consumers having large amounts of grilled pork (97.5th percentile and maximum level of pork consumption) were well below 10,000. When considering the maximum level of PAHs contamination, MOEs ranged between 257 and 2,757 for the high and median levels of consumption, indicating a safety concern for these consumers. This study reveals that Beninese grilled pork consumers from South Benin can be exposed to high levels of PAHs, which might result in public health issues.

Effects of Cooking Methods and Tea Marinades on the Formation of Heterocyclic Amines and Benzo[a]pyrene in Grilled Drumsticks

ABSTRACT

The effects of different grilling methods and tea marinades on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in grilled chicken drumsticks were investigated. This study showed that both the grilling method and type of charcoal used in charcoal grilling had a significant effect on the formation of HCAs and BaP. The total content of HCAs and BaP detected in drumsticks was the lowest under electric roasting, at 7.25 and 0.04 ng/g, respectively; thus, the electric grill can be used as an alternative grilling method to meet consumer demands for safety. The free radical scavenging ability of tea infusion was significantly higher than that of spice infusion. The white tea marinade significantly increased radical scavenging activity and prevented formation of HCAs and BaP more than the green tea marinade; thus, tea marinade can be applied to flavoring as a pretreatment to preserve the quality of meat and to decrease the generation of HCAs and BaP during cooking.

HIGHLIGHTS

Analysis of heterocyclic aromatic amine profiles in Chinese traditional bacon and sausage based on ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS)

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS) was used for the screening and determination of 14 heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in Chinese traditional bacon and sausage. HAAs were extracted from samples using sodium hydroxide solution with acetonitrile, and purified by solid-phase extraction. UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS acquired full MS data for quantification, and UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-Full MS/dd-MS2 (i.e., data-dependent scan mode) obtained product ion spectra for identification. Quantification was achieved using matrix-matched standard calibration curves along with the use of isotope labeled standards as internal standards. Linearity was observed in the range of 0.2-500 μg/L for 14 HAAs, with determination coefficients (R²) greater than 0.997. Limits of detection and limits of quantification were in the ranges of 0.1-0.8 μg/kg and 0.3-2.5 μg/kg, respectively. UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS demonstrated acceptable performance for quantification and confirmation of HAAs, while UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-Full MS/dd-MS2 along with library matching showed great potential for screening and confirmation of unknown HAAs in meat products.

Occurrence of Heterocyclic Amines in Commercial Fast-Food Meat Products Available on the Chinese Market and Assessment of Human Exposure to these Compounds

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) have been identified as highly mutagenic and are risk factors for human cancer. In recent years, the intake of fast-food meat products has increased exponentially due to their convenience. Therefore, it is important to assess the health risks of HCAs and provide useful public dietary guidelines. Eight fast-food meat products were selected from the Chinese market, including chicken, beef, and fish, to evaluate their health risk in conjunction with HCAs. Crispy chicken drumsticks contained the maximum level of total HCAs (24.18 ± 3.57 ng/g), followed by crispy fried chicken burgers (19.99 ± 1.41 ng/g) and traditional Chinese nuggets (19.17 ± 1.23 ng/g), whereas shrimp cake burgers had the lowest levels (13.17 ± 1.77 ng/g). Crispy chicken drumsticks (men: 169.12 ng/day, women: 108.70 ng/day), hot chicken wings (men: 126.32 ng/day, women: 142.11 ng/day), and crispy fried chicken burgers (men: 129.78 ng/day, women: 59.91 ng/day) were found to provide the highest dietary intake of HCAs in both genders, which may lead to an increase in colorectal and breast cancers. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The rapid expansion of the Chinese fast-food industry has promoted serious health problems, such as colorectal cancer and some cardiovascular diseases. Several epidemiological studies revealed that a high intake of processed meats may increase the risk of cancer in humans because cooking food proteins, such as meat, at high temperatures could produce high levels of carcinogenic compounds, such as HCAs. Because of the vast variation in eating habits, preparation methods and the frequency of meat consumption, it is important to evaluate the accurate level of HCAs in commercially available fast-food meat products with the aim to clarify the association between processed meats and the health risk.

Presence of heterocyclic amine carcinogens in home-cooked and fast-food camel meat burgers commonly consumed in Saudi Arabia

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are formed by cooking protein-rich foods, for instance, meat and fish, and are listed as possible human carcinogens. In the present study, the presence of five potential HCAs (IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP) in cooked camel meat burgers was analyzed for the first time. The analysis was performed in home-cooked and fast-food burger samples containing food additives. The applied cooking technique for the home-cooked samples was pan frying for a controlled cooking time and temperature. In the control cooked meat samples (samples that contained no food additives), the concentrations of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP ranged from 2.47 ng/g to 4.89 ng/g, whereas IQ and MeIQ were found to be below the limit of quantification. The concentrations contents of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP in the home-cooked and fast-food samples ranged from 1.52 ng/g to 2.13 ng/g and 1.85 ng/g to 3.46 ng/g, respectively. IQ and MeIQ were not detected in either type of sample. In comparison to the control samples, the home-cooked and fast-food samples produced lower levels of HCAs. Such observations could result from the existence of antioxidants in incorporated food additives, which induce pro-oxidative effects with the successive formation and/or scavenging of free radicals.