Modified SPI improves the emulsion properties and oxidative stability of fish oil microcapsules

Probiotics Encapsulated via Biological Macromolecule for Neurological Therapy and Functional Food: A Review

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits to humans, offering significant potential for preventing and treating various diseases. Neurological disorders, driven by multifaceted factors and linked to high disability rates, have become a growing global concern, particularly in the context of an aging population. Recent studies emphasize a strong connection between dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and neurological disorders. Probiotics have emerged as promising therapeutic interventions due to their ability to modulate the gut microbiota and influence the production of key metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids and neurotransmitters, crucial for neurological health. However, probiotic viability is often compromised, limiting their therapeutic efficacy. We propose that developing high-activity probiotic formulations, coupled with innovative delivery strategies, holds considerable promise for advancing neurological treatments. Encapsulation systems have proven effective in enhancing probiotic stability and efficacy. This review discusses advances in probiotic delivery using biological macromolecule-based encapsulation, addressing key challenges in maintaining viability during production, storage, and digestion. It also highlights emerging delivery systems, such as microencapsulation, aimed at improving stability and therapeutic effectiveness. Additionally, the review explores the potential of functional foods enriched with probiotics for neurological health. Future research should explore clinical applications of encapsulated probiotics and support the development of functional foods to enhance neurological health.

The role of defatted hydrolyzed egg yolk powder in protecting DHA algal oil

This study comprehensively investigated DHA algal oil emulsions and microcapsules prepared with different egg yolk hydrolysates (DHYP). Dual-enzyme (phospholipase A1 and protease) treatment enhanced emulsion stability by boosting protein adsorption, reducing particle size, and increasing zeta potential. For microcapsules, EF-DUAL, treated with dual-enzymes, had improved solubility, dispersibility, and wall material compactness, effectively protecting DHA from oxidation. During accelerated storage, EF-DUAL had the lowest oxidation levels and maintained a high DHA retention rate of 22.08 % after 12 days at 60 °C, extending DHA algal oil's shelf life by 300 %. Linear regression analysis indicated that the oxidation of DHA algal oil followed first-order kinetics, whereas microcapsule powders exhibited higher zero-order coefficients. Overall, this study underscores the potential of DHYP, particularly dual-enzyme hydrolyzed egg yolk powder, as a wall material for DHA microencapsulation.

The role of Maillard reaction in increasing affinity between soybean protein isolate and phloretin and its effects on protein functionality

This study investigated the effects of the Maillard reaction on the interaction between soybean protein isolate (SPI) and phloretin (PHL), along with its impact on the functional properties of soybean protein isolate. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) results showed that sodium alginate (SA) was successfully grafted onto SPI. The fluorescence results indicated that the red shift and fluorescence burst of the ternary complexes were more pronounced, indicating that the proteins in the complexes had a more compact tertiary structure. The molecular docking showed that phloretin formed shorter hydrogen bonds with surrounding active amino acid residues after the Maillard reaction, suggesting that the Maillard reaction enhanced the stability of Phloretin's binding to proteins. The slight blue shifts observed in the amide I and amide II bands suggested hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions are also present. A decrease in α-helix and β-sheet content, along with an increase in irregular curl content, indicating protein unfolding. Also, the functional properties of SPI were improved due to the unfolding of the protein structure. These findings will provide valuable insights for the subsequent study of Maillard reaction products in the construction of nutrient delivery systems.

Development of low-allergenicity algal oil microcapsules with high encapsulation efficiency using extensively hydrolyzed whey protein

Algal oil is rich in docosahexaenoic acid, which is beneficial for infant development, but its susceptibility to oxidation necessitates microencapsulation. This study investigated the effects of incorporating varying ratios of octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-MS) into a base wall system comprising extensively hydrolyzed whey protein (eWPH) and maltodextrin (MD) to produce algal oil microcapsules with reduced allergenicity and high nutritional value, replacing whey protein isolate (WPI). The residual antigenicity of α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin in eWPH was 3.60 % and 3.88 %, respectively. The addition of OSA-MS significantly enhanced emulsion stability in the eWPH/MD system for algal oil encapsulation. The highest microencapsulation efficiency (98.35 %) was achieved with 21 % OSA-MS, showing no significant difference from that of WPI/MD-based microcapsules. Furthermore, microcapsules prepared with eWPH/MD/OSA-MS (21 %) exhibited smooth surfaces, good dispersibility, and high solubility (91.79 %). These microcapsules also demonstrated superior oxidative stability after 18 days of storage at 60 °C compared to those with other OSA-MS ratios. Overall, incorporating OSA-MS into the eWPH/MD wall system achieved encapsulation performance comparable to WPI/MD, thereby broadening the application potential of eWPH in microencapsulation.

Novel technologies, effects and applications of modified plant proteins by Maillard reaction and strategies for regulation: A review

With an increase in awareness of health, environmental conservation and animal welfare, the market for plant proteins is expanding. However, the low solubility and poor functional properties of plant proteins near the isoelectric point limit their application in food processing. Glycosylation refers to the structural modification of proteins by introduction of polysaccharides to form protein-polysaccharide conjugates in the early stages of Maillard reaction. Glycosylation is a green and efficient method that has been proved to produce modified proteins with superior solubility, emulsifying and forming properties. Glycosylation and the application of protein-carbohydrate conjugates have become research hotspots in recent years. This paper presented a comprehensive review of the effects of glycosylation on the functional properties of plant proteins and the mechanisms of non-thermal physical treatments assisted glycosylation. It was demonstrated that glycosylation modified the structure of plant proteins and improved their functional properties. Non-thermal physical treatments assisted glycosylation increased the reactive sites of plant proteins and further improved their functional properties. Protein-carbohydrate conjugates could be applied in delivery systems, films, emulsifiers and other applications, which have significant research prospects in food applications.

Recent advances in the plant protein-polyphenol interactions for the stabilization of emulsions

Proteins from plant sources including legumes, cereals and oilseeds are gaining attention due to their suitability for sustainable production, functionality, and positive consumer perception. On the other hand, polyphenols (PPs) are receiving considerable attention as natural ingredients in the human diet due to their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Recent studies indicate that the emulsifying properties of plant proteins (PLPs) can be improved after modification through covalent and/or non-covalent interactions with PPs due to the changes in the conformation and/or the surface chemistry of the proteins. Complexes formed between PLPs-PPs can serve as innovative ingredients for developing novel food products with modified textural properties. Also, Pickering emulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayer emulsions, nanoemulsions, and high internal phase emulsions can be stabilized by such systems to deliver bioactive compounds. This paper reviews the most recent research on the PLP-PP interactions and their role in the stabilization of various emulsion-based systems. A special emphasis is given to modifying the structure and functionality of PLPs and PPs. The challenges and opportunities of applying PLP-PP interactions in emulsion-based systems are also highlighted.

Development of soybean protein-based bioactive substances delivery systems: A systematic overview based on recent researches

Some bioactive substances in food have problems such as poor solubility, unstable chemical properties and low bioavailability, which limit their application in functional foods. In recent years, in order to improve the above problems of bioactive substances, soybean protein-based drug delivery systems have been developed. This article reviewed the structure and properties of several major soybean protein commonly used to construct bioactive substance delivery systems. Several common carrier types based on soybean protein were then introduced. The biological functions and limitations of several common soybean protein delivery bioactive substances and the role of soybean protein-based delivery systems were discussed. At present, soybean protein is the most widely used in drug delivery systems. Soybean protein-based nano-particles are currently the most commonly used delivery carriers. Soybean protein-based hydrogels, emulsions, microcapsules and electrospinning are also widely used. Polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins, functional oils and probiotics are bioactive substances that are frequently delivered. However, in order to promote the application of soybean protein-based delivery systems in food, soybean protein peptidyl delivery vectors and collaborative delivery are the future development trends. In addition, a number of challenges must be addressed, including the sensitization of soybean protein, intolerance to environmental conditions, and the limitations of processing technologies.

Oil-droplet anchors accelerate the gelation of regenerated silk fibroin-based emulsion gels

The oil fraction will affect the aggregation behavior and structural strength of emulsion gels. In this study, the effect of the camellia oil (CO) fraction on the properties of emulsion gels stabilized by regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) was studied. The results showed that CO was essential for gel formation, with oil droplets incorporated into the RSF matrix as anchors to achieve rapid gelation of RSF. The gel hardness significantly increased from 20.03 to 53.35 g as the fraction of CO increased from 5 % to 25 %. The oxidation stability of the emulsion gels was also improved, and the peroxide value (POV) decreased from 2419.3 to 839.9 μmol/kg. As the oil fraction rose from 5 % to 25 %, the percentage of released free fatty acids decreased from 73.24 % to 59.49 % due to forming a more compact gel structure. In addition, the rheological results revealed that all emulsion gels had a shear-thinning behavior and good temperature stability in the range of 5 to 90 °C. This study provided a theoretical basis for preparing RSF-based emulsion gels, helps in the recycling of silk protein resources, and promotes the development of emulsion gel applications in the food industry.

Enhanced stability and biocompatibility of HIPEs stabilized by cyclodextrin-metal organic frameworks with inclusion of resveratrol and soy protein isolate for β-carotene delivery

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPEs) constitute a significant research domain within colloid interface chemistry, addressing the demand for robust emulsion systems across various applications. An innovative nanoparticle, synthesized from a cyclodextrin metal-organic framework encapsulated with a composite of resveratrol and soy isolate protein (RCS), was employed to fortify a high internal phase emulsion. The emulsion's three-dimensional printing capabilities, alongside the encapsulated delivery efficacy for β-carotene, were thoroughly examined. Cyclodextrin metal-organic frameworks (CD-MOFs), facilitated by cellulose nanofibrils, were synthesized to yield particles at the nanoscale, maintaining a remarkable 97.67 % cellular viability at an elevated concentration of 1000 μg/ml. The RCS nanoparticles demonstrated thermal stability and antioxidant capacities surpassing those of CD-MOF. The integration of soybean isolate protein augmented both the hydrophobicity (from 21.95 ± 0.64° to 59.15 ± 0.78°) and the interfacial tension (from 14.36 ± 0.46 mN/m to 5.34 ± 0.81 mN/m) of the CD-MOF encapsulated with resveratrol, thereby enhancing the RCS nanoparticles' adsorption at the oil-water interface with greater stability. The durability of the RCS-stabilized high internal phase emulsions was contingent upon the RCS concentration. Emulsions stabilized with 5 wt%-RCS exhibited optimal physical and chemical robustness, demonstrating superior performance in emulsion 3D printing and β-carotene encapsulation delivery. This investigation furnishes a novel perspective on the amalgamation of food customization and precision nutrition.

Improved physicochemical properties and in vitro digestion of walnut oil microcapsules with soy protein isolate and highly oxidized konjac glucomannan as wall materials

This study investigated the effect of the oxidation degrees of oxidized konjac glucomannan (OKGM) on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), physicochemical and in vitro digestive properties of soy protein isolate (SPI)-based microcapsules walnut oil using experimental and computational approaches. Microcapsules had the highest EE when the ratio of OKGM and SPI to oil was 2.5:1. With increasing the oxidation degree of OKGM, the EE of microcapsules was increased and the hygroscopicity was decreased. Molecular dynamics simulation results showed that SPI/oil/highly OKGM had relatively low binding energy (-4.03 × 106 kJ/mol) and strong electrostatic interactions, which may contribute to a higher EE and lower hygroscopicity of microcapsules, respectively. The oxidative stability of the oil was markedly improved by SPI and OKGM, and microcapsules prepared with SPI and highly OKGM had the highest in vitro digestion. This study provided theoretical support for broadening the application of microcapsules prepared with SPI and OKGM.

Development and characterization of edible and active coating based on xanthan gum nanoemulsion incorporating betel leaf extract for fresh produce preservation

Developing an edible and active coating, incorporating environmentally-friendly antimicrobial agents into edible polymers, provides an eco-friendly alternative to conventional packaging and exhibits significant potential in preserving the quality of postharvest food. Herein, we aim to develop a novel edible and active coating based on xanthan gum (XG) nanoemulsion (NE) incorporating betel leaf extract (BLE) for the preservation of fresh produce. The total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant capacity of the methanol extract of BLE at various concentrations were characterized. Further development of the active coating at different formulations of Tween 80 (1 % and 3 % w/v), XG (0.1 % to 0.5 % w/v), and BLE (1 % to 5 % w/v) was characterized by physical stability, viscosity, and antimicrobial properties. Results showed that the active coating at 1 % BLE showed significant antimicrobial properties against diverse bacterial and fungal foodborne pathogens (e.g., B. cereus, S. aureus) and fungal cultures (e.g., C. albicans). The study also examined the shelf-life of tomatoes coated with the BLE-XG NE solution, stored at 4 °C for 27 days. Analyses of weight retention, soluble solids, pH, texture, sensory attributes, and microbial populations showed that the coating effectively preserved tomato quality, highlighting its potential to preserve fresh produce and enhance food security.

Physical Stability and Antioxidant Ability of a Sustainable Oil-in-Water Emulsion Containing Perilla Skin Extract and Upcycled Aquasoya Powder

In response to environmental issues, upcycling has become a growing trend in the food industry. Aquasoya is a promising method to upcycle by-product from soybean processing due to its high protein contents and excellent emulsifying ability. In the present research, Aquasoya powder was used an emulsifier to incorporate the antioxidant compounds from perilla skin extract (PSE), namely rosmarinic acid, into oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion system and its physochemical stability was assessed. As a result, droplet size of the emulsion was smaller in PSE-incorporated emulsion (PO, 350.57 ± 9.60 b nm) than the emulsion without PSE (PX, 1045.37 ± 142.63 a nm). Centrifugal photosedimentometry analysis also revealed that the physical stability was significantly improved in PO, and the stability was maintained over 30 d of storage. Furthermore, as PO had a higher ABTS radical scavenging ability and showed slower initial lipid oxidation, it was concluded that PO has a higher antioxidant ability than PX. Conclusively, Aquasoya can be considered as an emulsifier in O/W emulsion with PSE because it can effectively integrate and stabilize the antioxidant substance derived from perilla skin.

Gardenia yellow pigment: Extraction methods, biological activities, current trends, and future prospects

Food coloring plays a vital role in influencing consumers' food choices, imparting vibrant and appealing colors to various food and beverage products. Synthetic food colorants have been the most commonly used coloring agents in the food industry. However, concerns about potential health issues related to synthetic colorants, coupled with increasing consumer demands for food safety and health, have led food manufacturers to explore natural alternatives. Natural pigments not only offer a wide range of colors to food products but also exhibit beneficial bioactive properties. Gardenia yellow pigment is a water-soluble natural pigment with various biological activities, widely present in gardenia fruits. Therefore, this paper aims to delve into Gardenia Yellow Pigment, highlighting its significance as a food colorant. Firstly, a thorough understanding and exploration of various methods for obtaining gardenia yellow pigment. Subsequently, the potential functionality of gardenia yellow pigment was elaborated, especially its excellent antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. Finally, the widespread application trend of gardenia yellow pigment in the food industry was explored, as well as the challenges faced by the future development of gardenia yellow pigment in the field of food and health. Some feasible solutions were proposed, providing valuable references and insights for researchers, food industry professionals, and policy makers.

Psyllium and okra mucilage as co-carrier wall materials for fenugreek oil encapsulation and its utilization as fat replacers in pan bread and biscuit production

This study aimed to investigate the potential use of okra and psyllium mucilage as co-carrier wall materials with whey protein and gum Arabic polymers for encapsulation of fenugreek oil to mask its undesirable flavor and promote their health benefits. Particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, morphological properties and fatty acid profiles of crude and encapsulated oils were examined using zeta-sizer, SEM and GC-MS techniques. Crude and encapsulated fenugreek oils were added as functional ingredients during production of pan bread and biscuits. The quality characteristics (baking quality, color and organoleptic properties) of bread and biscuits as well as microbiological properties of bred samples were evaluated. Results showed that the forming microcapsules had sphere particles with the size of 5.05 and 31.64 μm for okra and pysillium mucilage, respectively and had smooth continuous surfaces with no holes or fractures. Fatty acids analysis showed that fenugreek oil is superior functional edible oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The organoleptic properties of products were improved when fat replaced with encapsulated fenugreek oil with okra or psyllium mucilage. Likewise, encapsulated fenugreek oil showed antimicrobial activity in bread samples during storage period. On contrary, Bread and biscuits incorporated with crude fenugreek oil gained the lowest scores for all organoleptic parameters. Regarding these results, encapsulated fenugreek oil presents good fat alternatives in dough formulations with acceptable technological, sensory and antimicrobial properties. However, further investigations still needed regarding the biological activity of encapsulated fenugreek oil and its utilization as a food supplement in other food products.

Effect of polysaccharides on conformational changes and functional properties of protein-polyphenol binary complexes: A comparative study

This study aimed to investigate the effect of different polysaccharides on the binding behavior and functional properties of soybean protein isolate (SPI)-quercetin (Que) complex. The binding behavior was assessed using multi-spectral technique with the Stern-Volmer equation, which confirmed the presence of static fluorescence quenching in Que and SPI. The addition of sodium alginate (SA) resulted in a reduction of the binding affinity between SPI and Que, while dextran (DX) exhibited some promoting effect. A slight blue shift was observed in amide I and amide II bands, indicating the presence of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Circular dichroism spectra revealed the ordered structures transformed into a more disordered state when polysaccharides were added, leading to an increase in random coils (SA: 18.5 %, DX: 15.4 %). Docking and dynamic simulations demonstrated that SA displayed greater stability within the hydrophobic compartments of SPI than DX, increased rigidity and stability of the SPI structure in SPI-Que-SA complexes. Electrostatic forces played a significant role between SPI and SA, while van der Waals forces were the main driving forces in SPI-DX complexes. Overall, the introduction of SA led to a looser and stable structure of SPI-Que complexes, resulting in an improvement of their emulsifying, foaming, and antioxidant properties.

Preparation and characterization of vanillin-conjugated chitosan-stabilized emulsions via a Schiff-base reaction

In the current work, vanillin-conjugated chitosan stabilized emulsions (CSVAEs) were successfully prepared and its characterization and antibacterial properties were investigated. Under stirring condition, CSVAEs were produced by a Schiff base reaction between the vanillin aldehyde group and the chitosan active amino group. The CSVAEs were described through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet spectrophotometry and thermogravimetric analysis, which demonstrated the generation of Schiff bases between vanillin and chitosan. Furthermore, the CSVAEs displayed differences at different pH values, indicating their potential as pH-responsive materials. By studying their release behavior, pH 4 was a critical point at which the properties of the CSVAEs changed. The antibacterial tests showed that the CSVAEs had good pH-responsive antibacterial abilities against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.

Enhanced Oxidative Stability and Bioaccessibility of Sour Cherry Kernel Byproducts Encapsulated by Complex Coacervates with Different Wall Matrixes by Spray- and Freeze-Drying

Sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) seeds are obtained as byproducts of the processing of sour cherries into processed foods. Sour cherry kernel oil (SCKO) contains n-3 PUFAs, which may provide an alternative to marine food products. In this study, SCKO was encapsulated by complex coacervates, and the characterization and in vitro bioaccessibility of encapsulated SCKO were investigated. Complex coacervates were prepared by whey protein concentrate (WPC) in combination with two different wall materials, maltodextrin (MD) and trehalose (TH). Gum Arabic (GA) was added to the final coacervate formulations to maintain droplet stability in the liquid phase. The oxidative stability of encapsulated SCKO was improved by drying on complex coacervate dispersions via freeze-drying and spray-drying. The optimum encapsulation efficiency (EE) was obtained for the sample 1% SCKO encapsulated with 3:1 MD/WPC ratio, followed by the 3:1 TH/WPC mixture containing 2% oil, while the sample with 4:1 TH/WPC containing 2% oil had the lowest EE. In comparison with freeze-dried coacervates containing 1% SCKO, spray-dried ones demonstrated higher EE and improved oxidative stability. It was also shown that TH could be a good alternative to MD when preparing complex coacervates with polysaccharide/protein networks.

Food protein glycation: A review focusing on stability and in vitro digestive characteristics of oil/water emulsions

Recently, increasing studies have shown that the functional properties of proteins, including emulsifying properties, antioxidant properties, solubility, and thermal stability, can be improved through glycation reaction under controlled reaction conditions. The use of glycated proteins to stabilize hydrophobic active substances and to explore the gastrointestinal fate of the stabilized hydrophobic substances has also become the hot spot. Therefore, in this review, the effects of glycation on the structure and function of food proteins and the physical stability and oxidative stability of protein-stabilized oil/water emulsions were comprehensively summarized and discussed. Also, this review sheds lights on the in vitro digestion characteristics and edible safety of emulsion stabilized by glycated protein. It can further serve as a research basis for understanding the role of structural features in the emulsification and stabilization of glycated proteins, as well as their utilization as emulsifiers in the food industry.

Ultrasound improves the thermal stability and binding capacity of ovomucin by promoting the dissociation of insoluble ovomucin aggregates

Ovomucin (OVM) is a natural glycoprotein with various biological activities but poor solubility. This study aimed to enhance the solubility of OVM by using an ultrasonic-assisted method. The effect of ultrasound (US) on the structure, thermal stability and biological functions of OVM aggregates was evaluated. It was found that insoluble OVM aggregates were dissociated and the solubility increased significantly to 90.0 % after US under 400 W for 45 min. US also improved the onset temperature (To) and denaturation temperature (Td) of OVM. More importantly, the cholesterol binding capacity of both OVM and its digestion products were significantly improved after US (p < 0.05). The gastrointestinal digestion products of US-OVM also showed higher α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition than native OVM aggregates. US-induced dissociation of OVM aggregates and the conversion of β-sheet and β-turn to random coil, resulting in the exposure of hydrophobic binding sites may be an important reason for the enhanced stability and adsorption capacity. These findings suggested that US was an effective method for preparing soluble OVM and improved its adsorption capacity, which can further facilitate the application of OVM in the food industry.

Biopolymer Nanovehicles for Oral Delivery of Natural Anticancer Agents

Cancer is the second leading cause of death throughout the world. Nature‐inspired anticancer agents (NAAs) that are a gift of nature to humanity have been extensively utilized in the alleviation/prevention of the disease due to their numerous pharmacological activities. While the oral route is an ideal and common way of drug administration, the application of NAAs through the oral pathway has been extremely limited owing to their inherent features, e.g., poor solubility, gastrointestinal (GI) instability, and low bioavailability. With the development of nano‐driven encapsulation strategies, polymeric vehicles, especially those with natural origins, have demonstrated a potent platform, which can professionally shield versatile NAAs against GI barricades and safely deliver them to the site of action. In this review, the predicament of orally delivering NAAs and the encapsulation strategy solutions based on biopolymer matrices are summarized. Proof‐of‐concept in vitro/in vivo results are also discussed for oral delivery of these agents by various biopolymer vehicles, which can be found so far from the literature. Last but not the least, the challenges and new opportunities in the field are highlighted.

Complex coacervation of soy protein isolate-limited enzymatic hydrolysates and sodium alginate: Formation mechanism and its application

The complex coacervation of soybean protein isolate and polysaccharide has been widely applied for preparing biopolymer materials like microcapsule. In this study, hydrolytic soy protein isolate (HSPI) was prepared by mild hydrolysis of soy protein isolate (SPI) with fungal protease 400 (F400). The degree of hydrolysis (DH) for the enzymatic products was controlled at 1%-5%. Emulsification, oxidation resistance, and thermal stability were used to evaluate the performances of HSPI with different DH. The results showed that the HSPI with the hydrolysis degree of 2% had the optimal property. Subsequently, the complex polymer of HSPI/SA was prepared by the coalescence reaction of HSPI and sodium alginate (SA). The turbidity curves manifested the optimal complex coacervation occurred at the ratio of 7:1 (HSPI:SA). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) presented that the reaction involved electrostatic interactions between -NH3 + in HSPI and -COO- in SA. Isothermal titration calorimetry experiments indicated that the complex coacervation reactions of HSPI and SA arose spontaneously. The microencapsulation by complex coacervation of HSPI and SA was further produced for embedding sweet orange oil. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) result revealed that the microencapsulation system of HSPI/SA had a better heat resistance than that using the SPI/SA complex polymer.

The Effect of Different Induction Methods on the Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Glycosylated Soybean Isolate Gels

Soybean protein isolate (SPI), as a full-valued protein, is rich in nutrients, such as amino acids. However, the isolated structure of soybeans makes it difficult to react and thus prepare good gels. In order to further improve the properties of SPIs and to prepare plant-based gels with good performance, this experiment was conducted to prepare maltodextrin glycosylated soybean isolate (MGSI) by the glycosylation of SPI and maltodextrin (MD), and the gels were prepared by thermal induction, transglutaminase (TGase) induction, and TG-MgCl₂ co-induction of this glycosylated protein to investigate the effects of different induction methods on the structure and properties of the gels produced by MGSIs. Moreover, the effects of different induction methods on the structure and properties of the gels produced by MGSI were investigated. SDS-PAGE protein electrophoresis, FTIR spectroscopy, and endogenous fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that all three inductions result in the covalent bond cross-linking of MGSI during the gel formation process. Compared with thermal induction, the TGase-induced MGSI secondary structure had a higher content of β-folded structures, increased fluorescence intensity of tertiary structures, and produced a red shift. The gel induced by TGase in collaboration with MgCl₂ contains a more β-folded structure and irregular curl and increases the β-turned angle and α-helix content further, the endogenous fluorescence λmax is significantly red-shifted, and the fluorescence intensity increases, demonstrating that the tertiary structure of MGSI unfolds the most, forming multilayered gels with the tightest structures. The three gels were analyzed by rheology and SEM, showing that the TGase-MgCl₂ synergistically induced gel had the highest energy-storage modulus G', viscoelasticity, and water-holding capacity, as well as the densest gel structure. In conclusion, the combined treatment of enzyme and MgCl₂ might be an effective way of improving the structure and gel properties of SPI. This study helps to promote the high-value utilization of SPI and the development of plant protein gels.

Study on the binding behavior and functional properties of soybean protein isolate and β-carotene

This study focused on the non-covalent interaction between soybean protein isolate (SPI) and β-carotene (BC). The conformational changes of SPI with β-carotene in varying proportions (BC/SPI: 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10%) were investigated by multi-spectroscopy and molecular docking. Results showed that the quenching mode is static quenching and binding affinity increased with temperature. The stoichiometry was 1:1, indicating there was only one binding site in SPI. The binding was based on entropy and primarily driven by hydrophobic interactions and its binding constant was in the order of 104 L⋅mol–1. The addition of the β-carotene affected the secondary structure of SPI resulting in an increase in α-Helix and a decrease in random coil and β-turn content, indicating protein aggregated and hydrophobic interactions occurred. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) verified that no new larger molecular weight substance was formed and no covalent interaction existed. Molecular docking corroborated that electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions were both involved in the formation of complexes, where hydrophobic interaction was the dominant one. Moreover, β-carotene improved 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, foaming capacity, and emulsifying stability of SPI. These findings provide useful information about the interaction mechanism of SPI and β-carotene, which contributes to the further development and application of SPI products rich in β-carotene in the food industry.

Comparison of Oxidative and Physical Stabilities of Conjugated Linoleic Acid Emulsions Stabilized by Glycosylated Whey Protein Hydrolysates via Two Pathways

The objective of the research was to analyze and compare the oxidative and physical stabilities of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) emulsions stabilized by two glycosylated hydrolysates (GPP-A and GPP-B) that were formed via two different pathways. This study showed that GPP-A exhibited higher browning intensity and DPPH radical scavenging ability in comparison with GPP-B. Moreover, the CLA emulsion formed by GPP-A exhibited a lower creaming index, average particle size, primary and secondary oxidative products, in comparison with GPP-B-loaded emulsion. However, the GPP-A-loaded emulsion showed a higher absolute potential and fraction of interfacial adsorption than that of the CLA emulsion formed by GPP-B. Therefore, the CLA emulsion formed by GPP-A exhibited stronger stabilities in comparison with the GPP-B-loaded emulsion. These results suggested that GPP-A showed an emulsification-based delivery system for embedding CLA to avoid the loss of biological activities. Additionally, the development of CLA emulsions could exert its physiological functions and prevent its oxidation.

Improved protective and controlled releasing effect of fish oil microcapsules with rice bran protein fibrils and xanthan gum as wall materials

This study aimed to prepare fish oil microcapsules by freeze-drying an emulsion co-stabilized by rice bran protein fibrils (RBPFs) and xanthan gum (XG) to improve the oxidation stability and controlled release effect. Emulsions stabilized either solely by RBPFs or unfibrillated rice bran protein (RBP) or by a combination of RBP and XG were also fabricated as microcapsule templates for comparison. The rheological properties, particle size, and zeta potential of the emulsions were examined. In addition, the characteristics of the fish oil microcapsules such as surface oil content, encapsulation efficiency, water activity, moisture content, morphological structure, oxidation stability, and digestive performance were also assessed. The rheological properties revealed that the addition of XG increased the storage modulus of the emulsion and reduced the loss modulus and apparent viscosity. At shear rates of 0-100 s^-1, the fish oil emulsion did not exhibit any gel properties or shear thinning. Fibrillation increased the particle size of the fish oil emulsion, whereas adding XG reduced the droplet size. The combination of RBP fibrillation and XG addition provided the highest encapsulation efficiency for fish oil. Fibrillation reduced the water activity and moisture content of the fish oil microcapsules. The anisotropy of the fibrils and the high viscosity of XG produced a layer of wrapping on the continuous heterogeneous surface of the freeze-dried powder particles. RBPF/XG microcapsules stored at 45 °C for 1 month had the lowest peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid value, the lowest surface oil content, and the lightest yellowness. These results suggest that the combination of RBPFs and XG provides better encapsulation and protective effects for fish oil microcapsules. Upon simulated digestion, the microcapsules containing XG and RBPFs exhibited a more favorable controlled release of free fatty acids. These findings indicate that microcapsules formed from emulsions co-stabilized by XG and RBPFs are suitable for encapsulating fish oil in functional foods.

Protein-polysaccharide interactions for the fabrication of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers: Chemical conjugates and physical complexes

As unique biopolymeric architectures, covalently and electrostatically protein-polysaccharide (PRO-POL) systems can be utilized for bioactive delivery by virtue of their featured structures and unique physicochemical attributes. PRO-POL systems (i. e, microscopic /nano-dimensional multipolymer particles, molecularly conjugated vehicles, hydrogels/nanogels/oleogels/emulgels, biofunctional films, multilayer emulsion-based delivery systems, particles for Pickering emulsions, and multilayer coated liposomal nanocarriers) possess a number of outstanding attributes, like biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bioavailability with low toxicity that qualify them as powerful agents for the delivery of different bioactive ingredients. To take benefits from these systems, an in-depth understanding of the chemical conjugates and physical complexes of the PRO-POL systems is crucial. In this review, we offer a comprehensive study concerning the unique properties of covalently/electrostatically PRO-POL systems and introduce emerging platforms to fabricate relevant nanocarriers for encapsulation of bioactive components along with a subsequent sustained/controlled release.

Evaluation of the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Aquasoya (Glycine max Merr.) Powder for Vegan Muffin Preparation

Recent concerns on health and sustainability have prompted the use of legumes as a source of plant-based proteins, resulting in the application of their cooking water as a substitute for egg whites. In this study, the cooking water of yellow soybeans was powdered, and, subsequently, the nutritional and functional characteristics of powders from yellow soybeans (YSP), chickpeas (CHP), and egg whites (EWP) were compared. The main components of these powders (total polyphenol, total carbohydrate, and protein), along with their hydration properties (hygroscopicity, water solubility index, and water/oil holding capacities), and emulsifying and foaming properties, were identified. The muffins prepared with YSP, CHP, and EWP were analyzed to determine their basic characteristics, such as volume, baking loss, and sensory attributes. The results of the powder analyses indicated that YSP was significantly superior to CHP and EWP, particularly in terms of holding capacities, and emulsion and foam stabilities. The sensory evaluation results showed that there was no statistically significant difference in overall acceptance among the muffin samples. Therefore, YSP can be used as an alternative to CHP or EWP, and applied as a novel ingredient in various vegan products.

Improved stability of liposome-stabilized emulsions as coencapsulation delivery system for vitamin B2, vitamin E and β-carotene

To realize the co-encapsulation of multiple nutraceuticals with different solubilities, Pickering emulsions stabilized by freshly-prepared liposome suspension stabilized emulsion (Fre-Lip-Sus-E) and hydrated lyophilized liposome stabilized emulsion (Hyd-Lyo-Lip-E) were prepared, in...

Synthesis and characterisation of polynorepinephrine-shelled microcapsules via an oil-in-water emulsion templating route

In this article, we present a facile and robust method for the surfactant-free preparation of polynorepinephrine stabilised microcapsules templated from an oil-in-water emulsion. The resulting microcapsule structures are dependent on the concentration of Cu²⁺ used to catalyse norepinephrine polymerisation. When the concentration of Cu²⁺ increases, the diameter of the microcapsules and the thickness of the shell increase correspondingly. The mechanical and chemical stability provided by the polynorepinephrine shell are explored using surface pressure measurements and atomic force microscopy, demonstrating that a rigid and robust polynorepinephrine shell is formed. In order to demonstrate potential application of the microcapsules in sustained release, Nile red stained squalane was encapsulated, and pH responsive release was monitored. It was seen that by controlling pH, the release profile could be controlled, with highest release efficacy achieved in alkaline conditions, offering a new pathway for development of encapsulation systems for the delivery of water insoluble actives.

Fabrication and characterization of gum arabic- and maltodextrin-based microcapsules containing polyunsaturated oils

BACKGROUND

Polyunsaturated oils have various health-promoting effects, however, they are highly prone to oxidation. Encapsulation using biopolymers is one of the most effective strategies to enhance oil stability. This research examined the potential of gum arabic and maltodextrin for microencapsulation of omega-3 rich oils, aiming to enhance encapsulation efficiency and stability of encapsulated oil.

RESULTS

We encapsulated fish and flaxseed oils by emulsification-spray drying. Spray-dried microcapsules were prepared by oil-in-water emulsions consisting of 10 wt% oil and 30 wt% biopolymer (gum arabic, maltodextrin, or their mixture). Results showed that both microcapsules were spherical in shape with surface shrinkage, and exhibited amorphous structures. Gum arabic-based microcapsules had higher encapsulation efficiency as well as better storage stability for both types of oil. Flaxseed oil microcapsules generally had higher oxidative stability regardless of the type of wall material.

CONCLUSIONS

Through a comprehensive characterization of the physical and chemical properties of the emulsions and resulting microcapsules, we proved gum arabic to be a more effective wall material for polyunsaturated oil microencapsulation, especially flaxseed oil. This study provides a promising approach to stabilize oils which are susceptible to deterioration, and facilitates their wider uses as food and nutraceutical products. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modification of soy protein isolate by Maillard reaction and its application in microencapsulation of Limosilactobacillusreuteri

Limosilactobacillusreuteri was encapsulated using Maillard-reaction-products (MRPs) of soy protein isolate (SPI) and α-lactose monohydrate by freeze-drying. The mixed solution of SPI and α-lactose monohydrate was placed in a water bath at 89°C for 160 min for Maillard reaction, and then freeze-dried to obtain MRPs. The effects of Maillard reaction on functional characteristics of MRPs and the properties of MRPs-microcapsules were studied. SDS-PAGE indicated that SPI subunit reacted with lactose to form a polymer, and the band of MRPs disappeared around the molecular weights of 33, 40, 63, and 100 kDa. Compared with SPI, the emulsion stability, emulsion activity, foaming capacity, foam stability, and gel strength of MRPs were increased by 259%, 55.71%, 82.32%, 58.53%, and 3266%, respectively. The results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and scanning electron micrographs confirmed that the protein structure also changed significantly. Then, MRPs were used as wall material to prepare L. reuteri microcapsules. Physical properties and viable counts of L. reuteri during the simulated gastrointestinal digestion and storage period were determined. The particle size of MRPs-microcapsules (68 μm) was smaller than that of SPI-microcapsules (91 μm). The viable counts of L. reuteri in simulated gastrointestinal digestion and after storage for 30 days were improved. The modifications with Maillard reaction can improve emulsification, foaming, and gel strength of SPI, and MRPs could be used as a new type of wall material in the production of L. reuteri microcapsules.

Legume proteins are smart carriers to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds and probiotic bacteria: A review

Encapsulation is a promising technological process enabling the protection of bioactive compounds against harsh storage, processing, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions. Legume proteins (LPs) are unique carriers that can efficiently encapsulate these unstable and highly reactive ingredients. Stable LPs-based microcapsules loaded with active ingredients can thus develop to be embedded into processed functional foods. The recent advances in micro- and nanoencapsulation process of an extensive span of bioactive health-promoting probiotics and chemical compounds such as marine and plant fatty acid-rich oils, carotenoid pigments, vitamins, flavors, essential oils, phenolic and anthocyanin-rich extracts, iron, and phytase by LPs as single wall materials were highlighted. A technical summary of the use of single LP-based carriers in designing innovative delivery systems for natural bioactive molecules and probiotics was made. The encapsulation mechanisms, encapsulation efficiency, physicochemical and thermal stability, as well as the release and absorption behavior of bioactives were comprehensively discussed. Protein isolates and concentrates of soy and pea were the most common LPs to encapsulate nutraceuticals and probiotics. The microencapsulation of probiotics using LPs improved bacteria survivability, storage stability, and tolerance in the in vitro GIT conditions. Moreover, homogenization and high-pressure pretreatments as well as enzymatic cross-linking of LPs significantly modify their structure and functionality to better encapsulate the bioactive core materials. LPs can be attractive delivery devices for the controlled release and increased bioaccessibility of the main food-grade bioactives.

Advantages of techniques to fortify food products with the benefits of fish oil

Fish oil has been widely applied in fortified food products because of its special health benefits especially containing high unsaturated fatty acids mainly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Nowadays, there are various foods fortify with fish oil available in the market. The main challenge of fortification of food products with fish oil is its highly susceptible to oxidation and its influence on sensory attributes during storage. The fortification methods such as direct addition through bulk fish oil, emulsion or microencapsulation could effectively improve the oxidative stability of fish oil and mask unpleasant fishy flavour in fortified products. Therefore, this article provides a review of techniques, their advantages and limitations, together with the effects of incorporating fish oil in foods products.

Phospholipid-Protein Structured Membrane for Microencapsulation of DHA Oil and Evaluation of Its In Vitro Digestibility: Inspired by Milk Fat Globule Membrane

The present study aims to design a milk fat globule membrane (MFGM)-inspired structured membrane (phospholipid- and protein-rich) for microencapsulation of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) oil. DHA-enriched oil emulsions were prepared using different ratios of sunflower phospholipid (SPL), proteins [whey protein concentrate (WPC), soy protein isolate (SPI), and sodium caseinate (SC)], and maltodextrin and spray-dried to obtain DHA microcapsules. The prepared DHA oil emulsions have nanosized particles. SPLs were found to affect the secondary structure of WPC, which resulted in increased exposure of the protein hydrophobic site and emulsion stability. SPL also reduced the surface tension and viscosity of the DHA oil emulsions. In vitro digestion of the spray-dried DHA microcapsules showed that they were able to effectively resist gastric proteolysis and protect their bioactivity en route to the intestine. The DHA microcapsules have a high lipid digestibility in the small intestine with a high DHA hydrolysis efficiency (74.3%), which is higher than that of commercial DHA microcapsules.

Optimization of the Emulsifying Properties of Food Protein Hydrolysates for the Production of Fish Oil-in-Water Emulsions

The incorporation of lipid ingredients into food matrices presents a main drawback-their susceptibility to oxidation-which is associated with the loss of nutritional properties and the generation of undesirable flavors and odors. Oil-in-water emulsions are able to stabilize and protect lipid compounds from oxidation. Driven by consumers' demand, the search for natural emulsifiers, such as proteins, is gaining much interest in food industries. This paper evaluates the in vitro emulsifying properties of protein hydrolysates from animal (whey protein concentrate) and vegetal origin (a soy protein isolate). By means of statistical modelling and bi-objective optimization, the experimental variables, namely, the protein source, enzyme (i.e., subtilisin, trypsin), degree of hydrolysis (2-14%) and emulsion pH (2-8), were optimized to obtain their maximal in vitro emulsifying properties. This procedure concluded that the emulsion prepared from the soy protein hydrolysate (degree of hydrolysis (DH) 6.5%, trypsin) at pH 8 presented an optimal combination of emulsifying properties (i.e., the emulsifying activity index and emulsifying stability index). For validation purposes, a fish oil-in-water emulsion was prepared under optimal conditions, evaluating its physical and oxidative stability for ten days of storage. This study confirmed that the use of soy protein hydrolysate as an emulsifier stabilized the droplet size distribution and retarded lipid oxidation within the storage period, compared to the use of a non-hydrolyzed soy protein isolate.

Influence of ultrasound pretreatment on the subsequent glycation of dietary proteins

The influence of ultrasound treatment on the subsequent glycation process of proteins is controversial. Glycation behaviors of bovine serum albumin (BSA), β-lactoglobulin (β-Lg) and β-casein (β-CN) after ultrasound pretreatment (UP) were compared by both evaluating glycation kinetics and analyzing structural changes of proteins. UP resulted in both unfolding and aggregation behavior in protein samples, which altered the accessibility of the Lys and Arg. Five cycles of UP up-regulated the glycation degree of BSA and β-Lg, possibly due to the unfolding behavior induced by UP, which exposed additional glycation sites. In contrast, 30 cycles of UP induced a dramatic increase (by 97.9 nm) in particle size of BSA, thus burying portions of glycation sites and suppressing the glycation process. Notably, UP had minimal influence on glycation kinetics of β-CN, due to its intrinsic disordered structure. Based on proteomics analysis, the preference of Lys and Arg during glycation was found to be changed by UP in BSA and β-Lg. Four, 3 and 3 unique carboxyethylated lysine residues were identified in glycated BSA after 0, 5 and 30 cycles of UP, respectively. This study suggests that the protein glycation can be affected by UP, depending on the ultrasonication duration and native structure of the protein.