Changes in structure and flavor of egg yolk gel induced by lipid migration under heating

Design strategies and mechanistic insights into stirred egg yolk microgels as dual-functional stabilizers and carriers in emulsion systems

Stirred egg yolk microgels (SYMGs) feature uniform protein-lipid dispersion, possessing potential for encapsulating active ingredients and notable natural emulsifying properties. SYMGs were developed as interfacial emulsifiers, and their physicochemical properties and emulsifying performance were analyzed to reveal the emulsification mechanism. SYMGs processed at 90 MPa exhibited optimal emulsification properties (emulsification activity of 10.11m2/g and emulsion stability of 193.45 min). The resulting emulsions maintained stability for 30 days during storage. Cryo-SEM analysis revealed that SYMGs formed a uniform protein cross-linked network with evenly dispersed small lipid droplets, which improved emulsifying efficiency. Finally, it was concluded that the mechanism of SYMGs emulsification is the dual mechanism of stabilization of emulsions by SYMGs through interfacial adsorption and formation of three-dimensional networks in the continuous phase. This study advances understanding of the interfacial mechanisms of natural emulsifiers with potential carrier properties, highlighting the potential of SYMGs as dual-functional stabilizers and carriers in emulsion systems.

Using low-field nuclear magnetic resonance to investigate the effect of composition, mechanical treatments, and storage on the stability of emulsions

This study investigates the application of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) to evaluate emulsion stability, focusing on formulation, mechanical treatments, and storage. The results showed that Emulsion 2 (water: 72.73 %, oil: 18.18 %, and egg yolk: 9.09 %) showed 4.68 % decrease in the longest peak relaxation time (T24) and 14.58 % reduction in T24 peak ratio than Emulsion 1 (water: 85.71 %, oil: 9.52 %, and egg yolk: 4.76 %). Mechanical treatments (high-speed mixing and high-pressure homogenization) increased T24 peak area ratio (>64 %) due to particle size reduction (<200 μm) and enhanced stability. Conversely, centrifuging the mechanically treated samples increased T24 peak ratio (Emulsion 1: 61.95 %, Emulsion 2: 21.88 %), indicating phase separation. After one day of storage, single-component relaxation time (T2w) doubled, reflecting weaker hydrogen bonding. A peak ratio's relationship with storage time (R2 > 0.99) was developed to predict emulsion stability. This study demonstrates LF-NMR's potential for predicting phase behavior and optimizing emulsion formulations and processing technologies.

Plant-based yolk alternatives based on alginate-chitosan and gellan gum-chitosan double hydrogel network using reverse spherification technology

This study used reverse spherification to create an egg yolk alternative with an ellipsoidal structure and good cooking performance. Natural polysaccharides, including sodium alginate (SA), gellan gum (GG), and chitosan (CS), were used along with plant-based egg liquid. SA-CS and GG-CS can form an enhanced double-network hydrogel membrane via electrostatic interactions and Ca2+-induced crosslinking, effectively encapsulating the emulsion core to create a plant-based spherical yolk that closely mimics the structure of natural yolk. Higher CS levels (> 0.3 % w/w) improve the mechanical and thermal stability of films, resulting in plant-based spherical yolk with good texture, water retention, and juiciness. The SA-based yolk alternatives are superior to the GG-based yolk alternative in terms of mechanical strength and water retention, while the GG-based plant-based spherical yolk film exhibits better in light barrier properties. These findings might provide valuable insights for designing and developing plant-based egg products.

Sacha inchi oil addition to hen diets and the effects on egg yolk flavor based on multiomics and flavoromics analysis

Multiomics and flavoromics were used to evaluate the effects of Sacha inchi oil (SIO) levels (0, 0.5, and 1 %) in hen feed on the sensory properties, volatile flavor, fatty acid composition, and flavor precursors in the resulting egg yolks. The addition of 0.5 % SIO improved consumer preference without causing off-flavors in the eggs. Thirty-eight volatile compounds were identified, of which thirty-five were significantly more abundant (P < 0.05) in the 0.5 % and 1 % SIO groups than in the control group. SIO additions enriched the egg ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content and achieved the ideal healthy ratio of ω-6/ω-3. Lipidomics combined with partial least-squares regression model analysis suggested that oxidative degradation of the fatty acids aided the variations in the aroma characteristic between the 0.5 % SIO and control groups. Our results established that SIO additions effectively increased the ω-3 PUFA content in yolks and improved acceptability.

Molecular mechanism of protein-lipid interactions in steamed egg gelation and deterioration: A quantitative proteomic study

Steamed egg (SE), a traditional egg dish, exhibits steaming time-dependent textural properties. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying SE gel formation and deterioration using quantitative proteomics combined with physicochemical characterization. Results showed optimal gel formation at 11 min steaming, while prolonged steaming (23 min) led to gel cracking and sensory deterioration. Textural analysis showed the hardness of SE increased continuously with the increase of steaming time, but the water-holding capacity decreased significantly. Quantitative proteomic analyses revealed that lysozyme and ovomucin may play a key role in SE formation by influencing protein aggregation through their chargeability and high glycosylation. In addition, the extension of the steaming time disrupted the structure of apolipoproteins, especially low-density lipoprotein (LDL), under the influence of NaCl. The protein parts of LDL were partially involved in the gel structure while the lipid parts were partially free, which might be the main reasons for the creation of voids in the egg custard gels and the decrease of the water-holding capacity. Our findings provide molecular insights into SE gel formation and deterioration, offering theoretical guidance for improving the texture of commercial SE products.

Mechanism of the Discontinuous Structure in Heat-Induced Natural Egg Yolk Mediated by Accumulation of Yolk Sphere Microgels: Morphology, 4D-DIA Proteomics, and Physicochemical Properties

The heat-induced natural egg yolk is a discontinuous object formed by the accumulation of yolk spheres. However, the reason why yolk spheres form individual microgels rather than continuous gels has not been elucidated. This study investigated the different gelation behaviors in the yolk sphere exterior (EYSE) and the yolk sphere interior (EYSI) by using 4D-DIA proteomics, electron microscopy, and multispectral techniques. Results demonstrated that vitellogenin-1, -2, and -3 (EYSI/EYSE fold change: 3.36, 3.53, and 2.42, respectively) were key proteins corresponding to continuous gel structure formation of EYSI. However, the high levels of apolipoprotein A-I (FC: 0.18) and heat shock protein found in EYSE with a special hydrophobic domain for lipid binding impeded the continuous gel formation. Thus, the EYSE formed some small-volume aggregates without continuous gel, which separated individually the microgel of yolk spheres. This study will provide theoretical guidance for the quality regulation of egg yolk products.

The Effects of Polyphenols on Texture and Flavor of Egg Yolk: A Molecular Docking Study

The effect of polyphenols on the texture and flavor of egg yolk hot gel (EY) was studied. Tea polyphenols (TP), rosmarinic acid (RE), and curcumin (CC) showed significant antioxidant properties during egg yolk processing and could effectively reduce lipid oxidation products (decreased by 68.9%, 76.4%, and 58.61%, respectively) and protein oxidation products (decreased by 47.49%, 37.47%, and 52.51%, respectively) and volatile odor components (styrene, nonanal and 1-octene-3-ol). In addition, these polyphenols enhanced the hot gel properties of the yolk, but did not significantly change the taste of the yolk. This improvement could be attributed to hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds formed between polyphenols and egg yolk proteins. These interactions produced a more stable structure that was less likely to unfold during heat treatment. As a result, exposure to free sulfhydryl groups, free amino acids and free fatty acids was minimized, thus reducing oxidation reactions.

Effects of pasteurization temperature and amino acids on the gelation behavior of liquid egg yolk: Emphasizing rheology, gel properties, intermolecular forces and microstructure

Pipeline blockage caused by liquid egg yolk (LEY) in the pasteurization process has become an urgent problem for egg industry. This study investigated the effects of amino acids (betaine/proline) on rheology of LEY and gel property of egg yolk gel (EYG) at various pasteurization temperatures (68, 72, and 76 °C). Rheological results revealed that 72 °C was the key transition point for increase in LEY thermal aggregation rate. Average particle size of EYG, BEYG and PEYG increased by 63.9 %, 27.3 % and 17.3 % with increasing pasteurization temperature. Amino acids promoted increase in disulfide bonding content and facilitated retention of free and bound water within gels. Moreover, amino acids enhanced crystallinity and order of gel structures. Amino acids can effectively mitigate thermal aggregation of LEY at mild temperatures and promote cross-linking of gel network at high temperatures. This study provides a theoretical foundation for heat resistance of LEY and application of EYG.

The improvement of gel properties and volatiles for frozen egg white melted assisted with ultrasound

The variation in thawing time, deterioration behavior, secondary structure, surface hydrophobicity, and average particle size of frozen egg whites (EW) thawed with or without ultrasound were characterized to evaluate the effect of ultrasound on the gel properties and volatiles of egg white thermogel (EWG). The texture, water holding capacity, etc., gel properties and microstructure were well maintained in frozen EW thawed by ultrasound (UEW) resulted from the mitigation of deterioration behavior due to shorter melting time (reduced 91.3 %). Moreover, the deterioration of VOCs in fresh EWG due to freeze-thawing could be mitigated when thawed using ultrasound. Meanwhile, the formation of pleasant VOCs and reduction in unpleasant VOCs in EWG were also promoted by ultrasound-assisted thawing. The improvement mechanism of gel properties and volatiles for (frozen) egg white melted assisted with ultrasound were systematically elucidated and this study provided a new insight into improvement of VOCs in frozen food.

Redistribution and fusion of protein-lipid assemblies within the egg yolk sphere under slight non-destructive deformation causing a change in thermal gel properties

Egg yolk production processed after separating egg white is a common method to shorten cycle, but its taste quality will change even the vitelline membrane is intact. This might be related to the slight non-destructive deformation causing redistribution and fusion of protein-lipid assemblies within the egg yolk spheres. We investigated the mechanism of the change in thermal gel properties under slight deformation. The results of microscopic structural morphology revealed that the whole boiled egg yolk (WEY) underwent a transition in protein-lipid assembly morphology within yolk spheres, which changed from local aggregation to disordered fusion in shaken boiled egg yolks (SEYs). The spectroscopic and physicochemical properties analysis demonstrated that the redistribution of protein-lipid assemblies gave rise to marked changes in water migration, texture properties, molecular interactions, and oral sensation simulation of egg yolk thermal gels. This is benefit to guide the regulation of the taste quality egg yolk products in industry.

Effect of Succinylation on Oxidation-Aggregation of Low-Density Lipoprotein and Formation of Off-Flavors in Heated Egg Yolks

This study examined the effect of succinylation on protein oxidation-aggregation and the formation of off-flavors in heated egg yolks (EYs). The sensory evaluation, content of volatile compounds, stability of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, and oxidation of lipid and protein at six levels of succinylated EY (0.25%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, and 10%, w/w) were determined. The results showed that the succinylated thermal EY's concentration of volatiles and off-flavors was reduced. Oil exudation and lipid and protein oxidation decreased with the improved succinylation degree. Succinylation also reduced the LDL particle size and changed the secondary structure (decreased the β-sheets and increased the α-helices) of protein in LDL particles. Meanwhile, succinylation could effectively change the thermal oxidation-aggregation of LDL protein by introducing succinyl groups with negative charges, thus increasing the stability of LDL particles in succinylated EY during heating. These results further revealed the relationship between the oxidation-aggregation of LDL and the formation of off-flavors in heated EY. These results also help improve the flavor quality of heat-treated EY and expands the application scope of egg products.

Study on the gelling properties of egg white/surfactant system by different heating intensities

The aim of this study was to elucidate the different effects and difference mechanism of gelling properties among egg white (EW) treated with different heating intensities and the composite addition of rhamnolipid and soybean lecithin. Particle size analyzer, potentiometric analyzer, surface hydrophobicity method, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques were used to determine the physicochemical properties and molecular structure, respectively. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, magnetic resonance imaging, texture profile analysis, and scanning electron microscopy techniques were used to analyze the gelling properties and gel structure, respectively. And we illuminate the different mechanisms in the gelling properties of the EW with various treatments and key internal factors that play important roles in improving gelling properties by establishing the link between the gelling properties and relevant characteristics by mixed effects model and visual network analysis. The results indicate raising the content of rhamnolipid decreased the migration of immobilized water in the EW gel and the free water content. At the heating intensities of 55 °C/3.5, 65 °C/2.5, and 67 °C/1.5 min, with an increase in rhamnolipid, the gel's cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness gradually increased. The mixed effects model indicated that heating intensities and composite ratios have a 2-way interaction on zeta potential, the relaxation time of bound water (T21), the content of bound water (P21), the content of immobilized water (P22), and fractal dimension (df) attributes (P < 0.05). The visual network analysis showed that the protein solubility, the relaxation time of immobilized water (T22), surface hydrophobicity, zeta potential, average particle size (d43) and the relaxation time of free water (T23) are critical contributors to the different gelling properties of EW subjected to various treatments and the improvement of gelling properties. This study will provide theoretical guidance for the development of egg white products and the expansion of egg white's application scope in the egg product processing industry.

Novel Insights into the Effects of Different Cooking Methods on Salted Egg Yolks: Physicochemical and Sensory Analysis

In this study, the flavor characteristics and physicochemical properties of salted egg yolk (SEY) under different cooking methods (steaming/baking/microwaving) were investigated. The microwave-treated SEY exhibited the highest levels of salt content, cooking loss, lightness, and b* value, as well as the highest content of flavor amino acids. A total of 31, 27, and 29 volatile compounds were detected after steaming, baking, and microwave treatments, respectively, covering 10 chemical families. The partial least squares discriminant analysis confirmed that 21 compounds, including octanol, pyrazine, 2-pentyl-furan, and 1-octen-3-ol, were the key volatile compounds affecting the classification of SEY aroma. The electronic nose revealed a sharp distinction in the overall flavor profile of SEY with varying heat treatments. However, no dramatic differences were observed in terms of fatty acid composition. Microwave treatment was identified as presenting a promising approach for enhancing the aroma profile of SEY. These findings contribute novel insights into flavor evaluation and the development of egg products as ingredients for thermal processing.

The effects of sucrose/NaCl combined pickling on the textural characteristics, moisture distribution, and protein aggregation behavior of egg yolk

Salted egg yolks have a tender, loose, gritty, and oily texture and are commonly employed as fillings in baked goods. This study investigated the formation mechanism of egg yolk gels using three different pickling methods: NaCl, sucrose, and mixed groups. The results revealed that of these pickling methods, egg yolks pickled with the mixture had the lowest moisture content (11.59% at 25°C and 10.21% at 45°C), almost no free water content, and the highest hardness (19.11 N at 25°C and 31.01 N at 45°C). Intermolecular force measurements indicated that pickling with the mixture mitigated the surface hardening effect of sucrose and facilitated protein cross-linking. Moreover, confocal laser scanning microscopy of the egg yolk gels pickled with the mixture displayed macromolecular aggregates and oil exudation, suggesting that this method partially disrupted the lipoprotein structure and notably promoted yolk protein aggregation and lipid release. Overall, egg yolks formed a dense gel via the mixed pickling method owing to the ionic concentration and dehydration effects. These findings show the impact of NaCl and sucrose in pickling egg yolks, providing a crucial foundation for developing innovative and desirable egg yolk products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study introduces a novel pickling strategy that combines sucrose and NaCl for egg yolk processing. The egg yolk pickled using this method exhibited improved quality according to the evaluated textural characteristics, moisture distribution, and protein aggregation behavior. The findings may broaden the use of sucrose as a pickling agent for egg yolk processing and provide new ideas for developing and producing pickled eggs and other food products.

Comparison and evaluation of L. reuteri and L. rhamnosus-fermented egg yolk on the physicochemical and flavor properties of cookies

The study aims to explore an effective approach to improve the sensory quality and consumer satisfaction of cookies in the food industry. L. reuteri and L. rhamnosus were chosen to ferment egg yolk and their effects on dough properties and physicochemical properties, flavor, texture, color, and sensory acceptability of cookies were studied. Results show that the utilization of fermented egg yolk significantly decreased baking loss and increased spread factor of cookies. GC-MS analysis indicates different Lactobacillus species enhanced cookie flavor through unique mechanisms. Texture analysis shows cookies prepared with L. rhamnosus-fermented egg yolk had significantly lower hardness (1807.12 g) than control cookies (2028.34 g). Sensory evaluation reveals the L. reuteri-fermented egg yolk significantly improved the overall acceptability of cookies by enhancing appearance, flavor, and mouthfeel scores. These findings have practical implications for food manufacturers seeking to enhance their product's quality and appeal, thereby gaining a competitive edge in the market.

New insight into yolk sphere microgel structure impacted by lipid and protein distribution changing under heating processing

The gel structure of boiled, shelled egg yolk is formed by the accumulation of yolk spheres, which are rich in lipids and proteins, and investigating the properties of the lipid-protein complex gel structure of the yolk sphere under heating is important. In this study, we used SEM and CLSM to confirm lipid migration and protein aggregation. We observed that during the heating process, the thermal stability decreased, and there was an increase in the content of β-turns and the degrees of freedom of water and lipids. G' increased during the frequency sweep but decreased after heating for 120 min. The various yolk gel structures exhibited varying degrees of resistance to compression from external forces. Prolonged heating resulted in the presence of gaps and increased surface roughness of the spheres. In conclusion, heating induced lipid migration and protein aggregation in the sphere microgels, thereby altering the structural properties of the gels.

Effects of cholesterol removal treatment on the flavor and physicochemical properties of hot gel egg yolk

The aim of this study was to investigate effects of cholesterol removal treatment (CRT) on the flavor, taste, texture, color, and nutritional value of hot gel egg yolk (EY). The off-odor, volatile components and taste of EY treated with CRT were studied by electronic nose (E-nose), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electronic tongue (E-tongue). The effect of CRT on the nutritional value of EY was studied by amino acid and fatty acid analysis. The CRT significantly reduced the content of hexanal, 2-amyl-furan, 1-octene-3-ol, styrene and heptanal in EY1-EY4, also decreased its bitter taste without affecting other taste and elasticity. In addition, the CRT did not affect the essential amino acids (EAA) content and L*, a* and b* values of EY1-EY4, but it led to the reduction in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content. In general, the CRT is an effective way to reduce the off-odor of EY without affecting consumer acceptance.

Tracking transformation behavior of soluble to insoluble components in liquid egg yolk under heat treatment and the intervention effect of xylitol

The heat sensitivity of egg yolk limits its application, and xylitol can improve its thermal stability. The soluble and insoluble components of egg yolk and egg yolk containing xylitol treated at different temperatures were explored from the aspects of thermal instability behavior characterization and structure property. Magnetic resonance imaging and low field nuclear magnetic resonance showed that increased temperature induced liberation and transfer of hydrogen protons. Meanwhile, the apparent viscosity of soluble components increased, while that of insoluble components decreased. Microstructure showed that heat treatment induced aggregation and lipid transfer. SDS-PAGE showed that heat treatment induced aggregation and transformation of γ-livetin and apo-LDL. The change in crystal structure, Raman spectroscopy, and 3D fluorescence spectra showed that heat treatment resulted in the unfolding of yolk proteins, especially plasma proteins. Xylitol could alleviate transformation of components by stabilizing protein structure, alleviating the damage in protein integrity and elevation in aggregation size.

Quantitative N-glycoproteomic analysis of egg yolk powder during thermal processing

The production of egg yolk powder often involves critical processes such as pasteurization and spray drying, however, these thermal processes will inevitably affect the functional properties of egg yolk (especially gelation and emulsification). The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanism of the effect of pasteurized egg yolk (P-EY) and spray-dried egg yolk (SD-EY) on the functional properties through quantitative N-glycoproteomic. The results showed, compared with fresh egg yolk (F-EY), emulsifying property of mild heat-treated P-EY was slightly reduced while the gelation property did not undergo significant changes, whereas emulsifying activity (EAI) and gelation strength of vigorously heat-treated SD-EY were significantly reduced by 48.72 % and 35.73 %, respectively. During thermal processing in SD-EY, larger aggregate particles (particle size ∼10 um) were formed, and the surface hydrophobicity was reduced (93.0 %) and the zeta potential was enhanced (62.8 %). The results of quantitative N-glycoproteomic showed that 13 N-glycosylated proteins (APOB, vitellogenin, etc.) were down-regulated while only 2 N-glycosylated proteins were up-regulated; 21 N-glycosylation sites were down-regulated and 2 N-glycosylation sites were up-regulated in SD-EY, suggesting that covalent cross-linking of protein N-glycoproteins may have occurred in the process of spray-drying, which altered molecular physicochemical characteristics of the yolk solution that further affecting the processing properties of egg yolk.

Interventional effect of compound sugar and salt on the thermal instability behavior of liquid egg yolk

In this study, the influence of compound sugar (glucose, sucrose, trehalose, and arabinose) and compound sugar and salt (glucose, sucrose, trehalose, arabinose, and NaCl) on the thermal stability of heat-treated liquid egg yolk was explored. The results showed that the addition of 4% compound sugar or 4% compound sugar salt could significantly enhance the heat resistance of liquid egg yolk and increase the denaturation temperature of liquid egg yolk to above 77°C. Moreover, the addition of sugar and salt could improve the functional properties of liquid egg yolk to varying degrees, allowing it to maintain excellent emulsification and soluble protein content after heat treatment. Further analysis using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that the increase in α-helix content in liquid egg yolk treated with sugar salt also contributes to improving the thermal stability of egg yolk. The method of inhibiting egg yolk aggregation caused by heat treatment provided in this study provides a selective method and theoretical basis for the commercial production of heat-resistant liquid egg yolk.

Effects of CaCl2 on the structure of high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein isolated from rapidly salted separated egg yolk

According to previous research, adding CaCl2 to the salting solution improves the quality of salted separated egg yolk. To further understand the improvement mechanism of CaCl2, this paper investigated the effect of CaCl2 on the structure of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) during the salting process. The results indicated that the addition of CaCl2 can affect the composition of HDL and LDL apolipoproteins, improving the orderliness of the HDL structure and the looseness of the LDL structure. It was discovered by atomic force microscopy (AFM) that adding CaCl2 to the salting solution can weaken the aggregation behavior of HDL. Simultaneously, the addition of CaCl2 decreased the relative content of intermolecular β-sheets in the secondary structure of HDL and LDL, influenced their tertiary conformation, and prevented HDL and LDL from participating in the formation of a three-dimensional gel structure by influencing their hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions.

Quantitative Lipidome Analysis of Boiled Chicken Egg Yolk under Different Heating Intensities

The effects of the four heating intensities (hot-spring egg yolk, HEY; soft-boiled egg yolk, SEY; normal-boiled egg yolk, NEY; and over-boiled egg yolk, OEY) on lipidomes of boiled egg yolks were investigated. The results indicated that four heating intensities had no significant effect on the total abundance of lipids and lipid categories except for bile acids, lysophosphatidylinositol, and lysophosphatidylcholine. However, of all the 767 lipids quantified, the differential abundance of 190 lipids was screened among the egg yolk samples at four heating intensities. Soft-boiling and over-boiling altered the assembly structure of the lipoproteins through thermal denaturation and affected the binding of lipids and apoproteins, resulting in an increase in low-to-medium-abundance triglycerides. The decreased phospholipid and increased lysophospholipid and free fatty acid in HEY and SEY suggests potential hydrolysis of phospholipids under relatively low-intensity heating. Results provide new insights into the effect of heating on the lipid profiles of egg yolk and would support the public's choice of cooking method for egg yolks.

Effect of yolk spheres as a key histological structure on the morphology, character, and oral sensation of boiled egg yolk gel

This study explored the effect of yolk sphere on gel state and taste differences between whole boiled egg yolk (WBEY) and stirred boiled egg yolks (SBEYs). Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) indicated that the WBEY was formed via the accumulation of yolk spheres, whereas the SBEY was a gel with a tight and ordered microstructure. The stirring disrupted the yolk sphere structure, leading to a homogeneous distribution of proteins and lipids in SBEYs, and a cross-linked network in gel was established with higher hardness and springiness. In the oral sensation simulation, WBEY had a higher saliva adsorption capacity and frictional force to oral soft tissue during swallowing than SBEY. This work contributes to a deeper understanding of the gel structure and taste of egg yolk, and provides a theoretical basis for the research on the formation of the gritty taste of egg yolks.

Identification of candidate genomic regions for egg yolk moisture content based on a genome-wide association study

BACKGROUND

Eggs represent important sources of protein and are widely loved by consumers. Egg yolk taste is an important index for egg selection, and the moisture content of the egg yolk affects the taste. To understand the molecular mechanism underlying egg yolk moisture content, this study determined the phenotype and heritability of egg yolk water content and conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using a mixed linear model.

RESULTS

We determined the phenotype and heritability of thermogelled egg yolk water content (TWC) and found that the average TWC was 47.73%. Moreover, significant variations occurred (41.06-57.12%), and the heritability was 0.11, which indicates medium-low heritability. Through the GWAS, 48 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to TWC (20 significantly, 28 suggestively) were obtained, and they were mainly located on chromosomes 10 and 13. We identified 36 candidate genes based on gene function and found that they were mainly involved in regulating fat, protein, and water content and embryonic development. FGF9, PIAS1, FEM1B, NOX5, GLCE, VDAC1, IGFBP7, and THOC5 were involved in lipid formation and regulation; AP3S2, GNPDA1, HSPA4, AP1B1, CABP7, EEF1D, SYTL3, PPP2CA, SKP1, and UBE2B were involved in protein folding and hydrolysis; and CSF2, SOWAHA, GDF9, FSTL4, RAPGEF6, PAQR5, and ZMAT5 were related to embryonic development and egg production. Moreover, MICU2, ITGA11, WDR76, BLM, ANPEP, TECRL, EWSR1, and P4HA2 were related to yolk quality, while ITGA11, WDR76, BLM, and ANPEP were potentially significantly involved in egg yolk water content and thus deserve further attention and research. In addition, this study identified a 19.31-19.92 Mb genome region on GGA10, and a linkage disequilibrium analysis identified strong correlations within this region. Thus, GGA10 may represent a candidate region for TWC traits.

CONCLUSION

The molecular genetic mechanism involved in TWC was revealed through heritability measurements and GWAS, which identified a series of SNPs, candidate genes, and candidate regions related to TWC. These results provide insights on the molecular mechanism of egg yolk moisture content and may aid in the development of new egg traits.

Characterization of physical properties, volatile compounds and aroma profiles of different salted egg yolk lipids

Salted egg yolks (SEY) have a desirable and unique flavor with multiple underlying applications in food processing, and their abundant lipids contribute to a creamy and pleasant aroma. However, it is important to maintain the stability of the SEY flavor, which depends to a large extent on the egg species and the processing method. This study aimed to extract different SEY lipids with conventional solvents, analyze the fatty acid composition, and screen the volatile compounds to elucidate the flavor differences between salted hen eggs and duck eggs. Compared to ethanol extraction, acetone-extracted lipids had lower acid value and viscosity, and almost had no phospholipid content. Fatty acid analysis revealed that the highest content of fatty acid in SEY lipids was oleic acid, followed by palmitic acid and linoleic acid, while there were significant variations of different SEY lipids in the fatty acid profiles. The volatile compounds were identified by headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS), and the overall odor was detected by the electronic nose (E-nose). A total of 27 volatile compounds were analyzed in SEY lipids and divided into 8 chemical classes. The aldehydes, furans and pyrazines were decreased, and the hydrocarbons were increased compared with untreated SEY. The combination of the physical properties and flavor evaluation of SEY lipids could provide a theoretical basis for the extension of the characteristic flavor matrix in SEY.

A Comparison between the Egg Yolk Flavor of Indigenous 2 Breeds and Commercial Laying Hens Based on Sensory Evaluation, Artificial Sensors, and GC-MS

The focus of this study was to compare the yolk flavor of eggs from laying hens of Chinese indigenous and commercial, based on detection of volatile compounds, fatty acids, and texture characteristics determination, using sensory evaluation, artificial sensors (electronic nose (E-nose), electronic tongue (E-tongue)), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 405 laying hens (Hy-Line Brown (n = 135), Xueyu White (n = 135), and Xinyang Blue (n = 135)) were used for the study, and 540 eggs (180 per breed) were collected within 48 h of being laid and used for sensory evaluation and the instrument detection of yolk flavor. Our research findings demonstrated significant breed differences for sensory attributes of egg yolk, based on sensory evaluation and instrument detection. The milky flavor, moisture, and compactness scores (p < 0.05) of egg yolk from Xueyu White and Xinyang Blue were significantly higher than that of Hy-Line Brown. The aroma preference scores of Xinyang Blue (p < 0.05) were significantly higher, compared to Hy-Line Brown and Xueyu White. The sensor responses of WIW and W2W from E-nose and STS from E-tongue analysis were significantly higher foe egg yolks of Hy-Line Brown (p < 0.05), compared to that of Xueyu White and Xinyang Blue. Additionally, the sensor responses of umami from E-tongue analysis, was significantly higher for egg yolks of Xueyu White (p < 0.05), compared to that of Hy-Line Brown and Xinyang Blue. Besides, the contents of alcohol and fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, oleic acid, and arachidonic acid, in egg yolk were positively correlated with egg flavor. The texture analyzer showed that springiness, gumminess, and hardness of Hy-Line Brown and Xueyu White (p < 0.05) were significantly higher, compared to Xinyang Blue. The above findings demonstrate that the egg yolk from Chinese indigenous strain had better milky flavor, moisture, and compactness, as well as better texture. The egg yolk flavors were mainly due to presence of alcohol and fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, oleic acid, and arachidonic acid, which would provide research direction on improvement in egg yolk flavor by nutrition. The current findings validate the strong correlation between the results of egg yolk flavor and texture, based on sensory evaluation, artificial sensors, and GC-MS. All these indicators would be beneficial for increased preference for egg yolk flavor by consumers and utilization by food processing industry, as well as a basis for the discrimination of eggs from different breeds of laying hens.

High freezing rate improves flavor fidelity effect of hand grab mutton after short-term frozen storage

Taking the eutectic point as the final freezing temperature, the differences of flavor substances of in hand grab mutton (HGM) frozen at three rates of 0. 26 cm/h (−18°C), 0.56 cm/h (−40°C) and 2.00 cm/h (−80°C) were determined and analyzed. The results showed that the flavor of HGM decreased significantly after freezing. With the increase of freezing rate, the contents of aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, acids, esters, others, free amino acids and 5′-nucleotides were higher, and the content of specific substances was also generally increased. All samples from unfrozen and frozen HGM could be divided into four groups using an electronic nose based on different flavor characteristics. Seven common key aroma components were determined by relative odor activity value (ROAV), including hexanal, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, (E)-oct-2-enal, (2E,4E)-deca-2,4-dienal and oct-1-en-3-ol. The higher the freezing rate, the greater the ROAVs. Taste activity values calculated by all taste substances were far <1, and the direct contribution of the substances to the taste of HGM was not significant. The equivalent umami concentration of HGM frozen at −80°C was the highest. These findings indicated that higher freezing rate was more conducive to the retention of flavor substances in HGM, and the flavor fidelity effect of freezing at −80°C was particularly remarkable.

Role of Lipids in Food Flavor Generation

Lipids in food are a source of essential fatty acids and also play a crucial role in flavor and off-flavor development. Lipids contribute to food flavor generation due to their degradation to volatile compounds during food processing, heating/cooking, and storage and/or interactions with other constituents developed from the Maillard reaction and Strecker degradation, among others. The degradation of lipids mainly occurs via autoxidation, photooxidation, and enzymatic oxidation, which produce a myriad of volatile compounds. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids generates hydroperoxides that then further break down to odor-active volatile secondary lipid oxidation products including aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones. In this contribution, a summary of the most relevant and recent findings on the production of volatile compounds from lipid degradation and Maillard reactions and their interaction has been compiled and discussed. In particular, the effects of processing such as cooking, drying, and fermentation as well as the storage of lipid-based foods on flavor generation are briefly discussed.

Water and lipid migration in salted duck eggs during storage with different packaging conditions as studied using LF-NMR and MRI techniques

Herein, the water and lipid migration of salted duck eggs during storage were systematically explored in three different packaging conditions of long-term salting, no packaging, and vacuum packaging. Bound water, multilayer bound water, lipid, and bulk water were observed in the whole duck egg by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) relaxation. Five weeks of salting process led to the redistribution of water and lipid due to the watery state of egg white and the gelation of egg yolk due to the permeation of salt, and boiling mainly caused an obvious decrease in the mobility of bulk water due to the gelation of egg white. Among these three conditions, long-term salting with 6 months storage caused the most serious redistribution of water and lipid as well as the rupture of the vitelline membrane, but could prevent the oxidation of egg yolk. Vacuum packaging had the least influence on the water and lipid distribution, mass change, and water content but led to lipid oxidation with high degree in egg yolk. However, the most obvious mass loss was observed in the salted duck eggs during the storage without packaging. In addition, principal component analysis of Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill data suggested that LF-NMR could distinguish the salted duck eggs with different storage times during the early stage of the storage. Practical Application Water and lipid migration of salted duck eggs during storage with three packaging conditions were explored by using low-field nuclear magnetic resonance and magnetic resonance imaging. Understanding the impacts of packaging conditions on water and lipid migration of salted duck eggs during storage could provide a new method for the quality identification.

Characterization of salted egg yolk flavoring prepared by enzyme hydrolysis and microwave irradiation

The salted egg yolk (SEY) is very popular in China for its pleasant flavor and texture. However, the long production cycle of traditional pickling and the waste of salted egg white had limited its industrialization. To solve these problems, a salted egg yolk flavoring was generated through enzymatic hydrolysis and microwave irradiation from fresh egg yolk in this study. The combination of enzymatic hydrolysis and microwave irradiation could force water and lipids in egg yolk to migrate out, and lead to lipid oxidation in high temperature. Lipid oxidation and Strecker degradation were defined as the major pathways of flavor generation. Among the generated volatile compounds, Hexanal, Heptanal, Benzaldehyde and 2-Pentyl-furan were supposed closely related to SEY flavor. This method could be used as an alternative method for the production of salted egg yolk. Furthermore, it could provide a foundation for further investigation of egg yolk containing flavor system.