A decade overview and prospect of spray drying encapsulation of bioactives from fruit products: Characterization, food application and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion

Enhancing Encapsulation Efficiency of Chavir Essential Oil via Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ultrasonication of Whey Protein Concentrate-Maltodextrin

This study focused on the characterization of emulsions and microparticles encapsulating Chavir essential oil (EO) by application of modified whey protein concentrate-maltodextrin (WPC-MD). Different physical, chemical, morphological, thermal, and antioxidant properties and release behavior of spray-dried microparticles were assessed. Antioxidant, solubility, emulsifying, and foaming activities of modified WPC were increased compared to those of primary material. The results indicated that the particle size distribution varied depending on the type of carriers used, with the smallest particles formed by hydrolyzed WPC (HWPC). Binary blends of modified WPC-MD led to improved particle sizes. The spray-drying yield ranged from 64.1% to 85.0%, with higher yields observed for blends of MD with sonicated WPC (UWPC). Microparticles prepared from primary WPC showed irregular and wrinkled surfaces with indentations and pores, indicating a less uniform morphology. The UWPC as a wall material led to microparticles with increased small cracks and holes on their surface. However, HWPC negatively affected the integrity of the microparticles, resulting in broken particles with irregular shapes and surface cracks, indicating poor microcapsule formation. Encapsulating EO using WPC-MD increased the thermal stability of EO significantly, enhancing the degradation temperature of EO by 2 to 2.5-fold. The application of primary WPC (alone or in combination with MD) as wall materials produced particles with the lowest antioxidant properties because the EO cannot migrate to the surface of the particles. Enzymatic hydrolysis of WPC negatively impacted microparticle integrity, potentially increasing EO release. These findings underscore the crucial role of wall materials in shaping the physical, morphological, thermal, antioxidant, and release properties of spray-dried microparticles, offering valuable insights for microencapsulation techniques.

Microencapsulation of Tecoma stans Extracts: Bioactive Properties Preservation and Physical Characterization Analysis

Bioactive compounds from medicinal plants have applications in the development of functional foods. However, since they are unstable, encapsulation is used as a conservation alternative. This work aimed to assess the bioactive properties (antioxidant and hypoglycemic) of different extracts, including the infusion, as well as their spray-dried microencapsulates from Tecoma stans leaves. A factorial design was proposed to determine the best extraction conditions, based on ABTS and DPPH inhibition. Maltodextrin (MD), arabic gum (AG), and a 1:1 blend (MD:AG) were used as encapsulating agents. Moreover, characterization through physicochemical properties, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the best two powders based on the bioactive properties were analyzed. The results showed that the combination of stirring, water, and 5 min provided the highest inhibition to ABTS and DPPH (35.64 ± 1.25 mg Trolox/g d.s. and 2.77 ± 0.01 g Trolox/g d.s., respectively). Spray drying decreased the antioxidant activity of the extract while preserving it in the infusion. The encapsulated infusion with MD:AG had the highest hypoglycemic activity as it presented the lowest glycemic index (GI = 47). According to the results, the microencapsulates could potentially be added in foods to enhance nutritional quality and prevent/treat ailments.

Spray dried acerola (Malpighia emarginata DC) juice particles to produce phytochemical-rich starch-based edible films

This study aimed to produce spray dried acerola juice microparticles with different protein carriers to be incorporated into edible starch films. The microparticles were evaluated for solids recovery, polyphenol retention, solubility, hygroscopicity, particle size distribution, X-ray diffraction, phytochemical compounds and antioxidant activity. Acerola microparticles produced with WPI/hydrolysed collagen carriers (AWC) with higher solids recovery (53.5 ± 0.34% w/w), polyphenol retention (74.4 ± 0.44% w/w), high solubility in water (85.2 ± 0.4% w/w), total polyphenol content (128.45 ± 2.44 mg GAE/g) and good storage stability were selected to produce starch-based films by casting. As a result, cassava films with water vapour permeability of 0.29 ± 0.07 g mm/m2 h KPa, polyphenol content of 10.15 ± 0.22 mg GAE/g film and DPPH radical scavenging activity of 6.57 ± 0.13 μM TE/g film, with greater migration of polyphenol to water (6.30 ± 0.52 mg GAE/g film) were obtained. Our results show that the incorporation of phytochemical-rich fruit microparticles is a promising strategy to create biodegradable edible films.

Mining association rules between the granulation feasibility and physicochemical properties of aqueous extracts from Chinese herbal medicine in fluidized bed granulation

Fluidized bed granulation (FBG) is a widely used granulation technology in the pharmaceutical industry. However, defluidization caused by the formation of large aggregates poses a challenge to FBG, particularly in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) due to its complex physicochemical properties of aqueous extracts. Therefore, this study aims to identify the complex relationships between physicochemical characteristics and defluidization using data mining methods. Initially, 50 types of TCM were decocted and assessed for their potential influence on defluidization using a set of 11 physical properties and 10 chemical components, utilizing the loss rate as an evaluation index. Subsequently, the random forest (RF) and Apriori algorithms were utilized to uncover intricate association rules among physicochemical characteristics and defluidization. The RF algorithm analysis revealed the top 8 critical factors associated with defluidization. These factors include physical properties like glass transition temperature (Tg) and dynamic surface tension (DST) of DST100ms, DST1000ms, DST10ms and conductivity, in addition to chemical components such as fructose, glucose and protein contents. The results from Apriori algorithm demonstrated that lower Tg and conductivity were associated with an increased risk of defluidization, resulting in a higher loss rate. Moreover, DST100ms, DST1000ms and DST10ms exhibited a contrasting trend in the physical properties Specifically, defluidization probability increases when Tg and conductivity dip below 29.04℃ and 6.21 ms/m respectively, coupled with DST10ms, DST100ms and DST1000ms values exceeding 70.40 mN/m, 66.66 mN/m and 61.58 mN/m, respectively. Moreover, an elevated content of low molecular weight saccharides was associated with a higher occurrence of defluidization, accompanied by an increased loss rate. In contrast, protein content displayed an opposite trend regarding chemical properties. Precisely, the defluidization likelihood amplifies when fructose and glucose contents surpass 20.35 mg/g and 34.05 mg/g respectively, and protein concentration is less than 1.63 mg/g. Finally, evaluation criteria for defluidization were proposed based on these results, which could be used to avoid this situation during the granulation process. This study demonstrated that the RF and Apriori algorithms are effective data mining methods capable of uncovering key factors affecting defluidization.

Exploring the Potential of Wild Andean Blueberries for Powdered Juice Production through Spray Drying

The Andean blueberry (Vaccinium meridionale Sw) is an underutilized wild fruit native to South America. It is known for its antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. In this study, Andean blueberry juice powders were produced via spray drying, using maltodextrin (MD), gum Arabic (GA) or a combination of both (MD:GA) as wall materials. The spray-dried juices were analyzed for the recovery percentage of total polyphenols and monomeric anthocyanins, as well as for their physicochemical and technological properties. Results showed that the type of carrier agent used caused statistically significant differences in the bioactive content and the antioxidant activity of the powders (p < 0.05). It was found that the MD samples has the highest monomeric anthocyanins content (0.88 ± 0.02 mg cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents/g) and the highest anthocyanins recovery (96.3 ± 1.7%), while the MD:GA powders showed the highest values of total polyphenol content (5.70 ± 0.09 mg gallic acid equivalents/g), DPPH scavenging capacity (2.49 ± 0.02 mg gallic acid equivalents/g) and phenolics recovery (87.2 ± 1.1%). Furthermore, all the spray-dried powders exhibited low moisture content (<5.5%) and water activity (<0.40), as well as high solubility in water (>94%) and good flowability. Future prospects include evaluating the stability of the Andean blueberry juice powders during storage and exploring the formulation of new foods and beverages that incorporate these spray-dried powders.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Cocoa Shell and Their Encapsulation in Gum Arabic and Maltodextrin: A Technology to Produce Functional Food Ingredients

In this study, the extraction of cocoa shell powder (CSP) was optimized, and the optimized extracts were spray-dried for encapsulation purposes. Temperature (45−65 °C), extraction time (30−60 min), and ethanol concentration (60−100%) were the extraction parameters. The response surface methodology analysis revealed that the model was significant (p ≤ 0.05) in interactions between all variables (total phenolic compound, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity as measured by 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP assays), with a lack of fit test for the model being insignificant (p > 0.05). Temperature (55 °C), time (45 min), and ethanol concentration (60%) were found to be the optimal extraction conditions. For spray-drying encapsulation, some quality metrics (e.g., water solubility, water activity) were insignificant (p > 0.05). The microcapsules were found to be spherical in shape using a scanning electron microscope. Thermogravimetric and differential thermogravimetric measurements of the microcapsules revealed nearly identical results. The gum arabic + maltodextrin microcapsule (GMM) showed potential antibacterial (zone of inhibition: 11.50 mm; lower minimum inhibitory concentration: 1.50 mg/mL) and antioxidant (DPPH: 1063 mM trolox/100g dry wt.) activities (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, the microcapsules in this study, particularly GMM, are promising antioxidant and antibacterial agents to be fortified as functional food ingredients for the production of nutraceutical foods with health-promoting properties.

Current Advantages in the Application of Microencapsulation in Functional Bread Development

Bread is one of the most widely embraced food products and is highly accepted by consumers. Despite being rich in complex carbohydrates (i.e., starch), bread is generally poor in other micro- and macronutrients. Rising consumer demand for healthier food has resulted in the growth of studies focused on bread fortification with bioactive ingredients (i.e., vitamins, prebiotics, and vegetable extracts). However, the baking process leads to the reduction (or even lessening) of the added substance. In addition, the direct inclusion of bioactive compounds and additives in bread has other limitations, such as adverse effects on sensory characteristics and undesirable interaction with other food ingredients. Encapsulation allows for overcoming these drawbacks and at the same time improves the overall quality and shelf-life of bread by controlling the release, protection, and uniform distribution of these compounds. In the last ten years, several studies have shown that including micro/nano-encapsulated bioactive substances instead of free compounds allows for the enrichment or fortification of bread, which can be achieved without negatively impacting its physicochemical and textural properties. This review aims to identify and highlight useful applications in the production of new functional bread through encapsulation technology, summarizing the heath benefit and the effect of microcapsule inclusion in dough and bread from a technological and sensory point of view.

Optimization of spray drying process parameters for the food bioactive ingredients

Spray drying (SD) is one of the most important thermal processes used to produce different powders and encapsulated materials. During this process, quality degradation might happen. The main objective of applying optimization methods in SD processes is maximizing the final nutritional quality of the product besides sensory attributes. Optimization regarding economic issues might be also performed. Applying optimization approaches in line with mathematical models to predict product changes during thermal processes such as SD can be a promising method to enhance the quality of final products. In this review, the application of the response surface methodology (RSM), as the most widely used approach, is introduced along with other optimization techniques such as factorial, Taguchi, and some artificial intelligence-based methods like artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithms (GA), Fuzzy logic, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). Also, probabilistic methods such as Monte Carlo are briefly introduced. Some recent case studies regarding the implementation of these methods in SD processes are also exemplified and discussed.

Evaluation of the microencapsulation process of conidia of Trichoderma asperellum by spray drying

Microencapsulation of microorganisms has been studied to increase product shelf life and stability to enable the application in sustainable agriculture. In this study, the microencapsulation of Trichoderma asperellum conidia by spray drying (SD) was evaluated. The objective was to assess the effect of drying air temperature and wall material (maltodextrin DE20, MD20) concentration on the microencapsulation and to identify the optimum conditions to produce, in high yield, microparticles with low moisture, high conidial viability and conidial survival. Microparticles were characterized in terms of morphology, particle size, and shelf life. A central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to evaluate the effect of operating parameters on drying yield (DY), moisture content, conidial viability (CV), and conidial survival (SP). Microencapsulation experiments were carried out under optimum conditions to validate the obtained model. The optimum temperature and MD20/conidia dry weight ratios were 80 °C and 1:4.5, respectively, which afforded a drying yield of 63.85 ± 0.86%, moisture content of 4.92 ± 0.07%, conidial viability of 87.10 ± 1.16%, and conidial survival of 85.78 ± 2.88%. Microencapsulation by spray drying using MD20 as wall material extended the viability of conidia stored at 29 °C compared with the control. The mathematical models accurately predicted all the variables studied, and the association of the microencapsulation technique using DE20 maltodextrin was able to optimize the process and increase the product's shelf life. It was also concluded that high inlet air temperatures negatively affected conidia survival, especially above 100 °C.