Lentil and Mungbean protein isolates: Processing, functional properties, and potential food applications

Soybean protein-soybean polysaccharide-EGCG ternary complex stabilized nanoemulsion and its application in loading pterostilbene: Emulsion stabilization mechanism, physical and digestion characteristics

Soybean protein isolate (SPI), soluble soybean polysaccharide (SSPS), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were utilized to prepare SPI-SSPS binary complex and SPI-SSPS-EGCG ternary complex, acting as natural emulsifiers to prepare oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion using high-pressure homogenization (90 MPa, 5 times) and the emulsion stabilization mechanism was analyzed. The SPI-SSPS-EGCG complex stabilized emulsion with smaller particle sizes that dispersed evenly, exhibiting excellent stability at 25-100 °C and pH 9.0-11.0 in different storage time ranges (1, 3, 5, 7, 14 d). The pterostilbene (PTE) embedding rate of emulsion stabilized by SPI-SSPS complex and SPI-SSPS-EGCG complex increased significantly compared with SPI stabilized emulsion. Moreover, the ternary complex stabilized emulsion had improved bioaccessibility of PTE after simulating in vitro digestion, and it stabilized by covalent complex (28.23 ± 0.21 %) was better than that of the non-covalent (25.07 ± 0.48 %).

Enhancing bioavailability and functionality of plant peptides and proteins: A review of novel strategies for food and pharmaceutical applications

Plant-derived peptides and proteins are emerging as versatile bioactive ingredients in functional food and pharmaceutical sectors due to their diverse health benefits. However, their practical applications are often limited by poor bioavailability and functional instability. This review evaluates key determinants of plant peptide/protein bioactivity, including physicochemical properties, anti-nutritional components, food matrix interactions, and gastrointestinal digestion conditions. Strategies to enhance their functionality and bioavailability are systematically discussed, focusing on absorption enhancers, structural modifications, protease inhibitors, and colloidal delivery systems (e.g., liposomes, emulsions, nanoparticles). Recent advancements highlight targeted enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation as effective methods to generate bioactive peptides with improved therapeutic properties. Additionally, physical/chemical modifications enhance stability against proteolysis and improve functional performance. Innovations in plant-derived protein-based delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, demonstrate promise in protecting bioactive compounds and optimizing bioavailability. Collectively, these approaches provide a roadmap for developing next-generation plant-protein products, addressing challenges in bioactivity retention and gastrointestinal absorption.

Effect of exogenous protein crosslinking on the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of corn starch

Starch is a primary energy source of human diet. Its physicochemical properties and digestibility can be improved by incorporating exogenous protein. In this study, mung bean protein isolate was covalently crosslinked using transglutaminase and proanthocyanidin to create crosslinked mung bean protein isolate. This modified protein was combined with corn starch to form crosslinked mung bean protein isolate-corn starch composite samples. Results demonstrated that these composite samples exhibited superior physicochemical properties, including reduced swelling capacity, enhanced freeze-thaw stability, improved thermostability, and enhanced antioxidant properties. During in vitro digestion, the improved corn starch digestibility was attributed to two factors: first, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions between crosslinked mung bean protein isolate and corn starch; and second, the synergistic crosslinking of transglutaminase and proanthocyanidin promoting the formation of a stable protein network of mung bean protein isolate, serving as a physical barrier to protect corn starch. After co-treatment with transglutaminase and proanthocyanidin, significant changes of mung bean protein isolate occurred in their secondary and tertiary structures, enhancing its protein network strength, thereby improving the physicochemical properties of corn starch. These findings propose a new strategy for reducing rapidly digestible starch and provide a theoretical foundation for developing low glycemic index starch foods.

Nutritional Components and Digestibility Profiles of Some Potential Plant-Based Protein Sources

BACKGROUND

The dominance of soybeans as the primary plant protein source has hindered the exploration of potential sources, limiting dietary diversity and innovation.

OBJECTIVE/METHODS

This study evaluated six plant protein sources-mung bean (MB), bambara bean (BN), jack bean (JB), sesame seed (SS), moringa seed (MS), and rice bran (RB)-compared to soybean (SB) for their chemical composition and biological qualities using standard methods.

RESULTS

Protein composition (14.98-30.29 g/100 g), fiber (2.90-8.18 g/100 g), and fat (5.19-33.30 g/100 g) varied across plants. Bulk density (0.49-0.74 g/mL), swelling capacity (0.25-0.55%), and yellowness (13.07-38.76) were comparable to SB. Electropherograms showed major protein bands at 20, 48, 75, and 100 kDa across plant proteins under non-reducing conditions. Phytate levels were highest in RB, while MS showed lower tannic acid composition (6.64 mg/100 g) compared to SB. Protein solubility (24.64-45.65%) increased with pH, while in vitro protein digestibility (74.86-87.64%) varied and was slightly below SB (91.07%); however, a similar pattern of protein digestion was observed under no reducing condition. MS and BN contained 31.17% and 42.47% of total essential amino acids with PDCAAS values of 41.42% and 58.46%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, MS and BN exhibited superior potential as sustainable protein sources, showing properties comparable to soybean.

Vegetative and microbial proteins for bioplastics applications - a review in the indian context

The generation of plastic waste is around 400 million tons per year. The non-degradable nature of fossil-derived plastics creates pollution, one of the most concerning environmental challenges faced by society, agencies, and governments today. A promising alternative to plastics is bioplastics. Bioplastics are biopolymer-based plastics derived from biomass or manufactured from the processing of monomers derived from biomass. Proteins are naturally occurring biomolecules that are one of the most suitable natural polymers for making bioplastics. In the form of films, proteins possess various desirable properties such as mechanical strength, gas impermeability, and durability. They are also renewable and easily accessible. Making bioplastics from wasted or unused protein sources is the ideal scenario. This review discusses the opportunities that come along with vegetative and microbial proteins to make bioplastics. It covers various sources for protein extraction, such as gluten, whey, zein, and soy from terrestrial sources and water hyacinth and duckweed from aquatic sources. It also discusses the methods of processing vegetative proteins to make bio-plastic products, the current challenges in employing bioplastics for typical applications, and the prospects to steer us towards a clean and sustainable future.

A high molecular mass emulsifier derived from lentil seeds: The role of polysaccharide and protein in its stabilization behavior

A water-soluble lentil polysaccharide (SLPS) extract was obtained from lentil fiber, at pH 10, after heating at 120 °C for 90 min, with a recovery as high as 16.5 %. SLPS had a weight average molecular mass of 1975 kg/mol, and contained 47 % glucose, 42 % arabinose, and 7 % uronic acid. Objective of this work was to evaluate the potential of SLPS to be employed as a natural emulsifier, by measuring its interfacial properties, as well as emulsifying capacity on a model emulsion system. Acidic emulsions were prepared with 5 % oil and 5 % SLPS and their particle size distribution was evaluated by light scattering and complementary microscopy, to determine their stability. SLPS showed the ability to reduce interfacial tension at oil/water interfaces, and the emulsions were stable under acidic conditions. Two different molecular weight fractions (SLPS-H and -L were investigated), and while the high molecular weight fraction (SLPS-H; 1567 kg/mol) was effective at stabilizing interfaces, emulsions prepared with low molecular weight fraction (SLPS-L; 2.3 kg/mol) showed aggregation and coalescence of oil droplets. Addition of pectinase caused aggregation of the droplets as measured by dynamic light scattering, demonstrating that adsorbs on the surface of oil droplets, and prevents aggregation of the oil droplets.

Optimizing aquasoya protein: Insights of various pre-treatments for enhancing the upcycling potential from small black bean by-product

To minimize resource waste and promote recycling, it is essential to recover nutritional components from by-products. This study aimed to optimize of Aquasoya protein (AS-P) recovery from small black bean by-products, focusing on the effects of pH adjustments, sonication, and fractionation on protein yield, solubility, and structural integrity. Alkaline treatment at pH 8.5 significantly enhanced AS-P recovery yield (77.60 %) and protein concentration (421.16 μg/mL), attributed to the increased solubility and effective removal of non-protein components. Sonication for 10 min exhibited the highest protein solubility (88.69 %) post-fractionation, indicating reduced protein aggregation. Fractionation was crucial in minimizing browning reactions and enhancing protein purity by eliminating oligosaccharides and impurities. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed distinct protein bands from alkaline treatment, while sonication resulted in lipoxygenase (LOX) protein degradation. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) emphasized that fractionation notably enhances the stability and quality of AS-P, making it as a viable ingredient for food applications.

Enhancing stability and flavor of mung bean-based milk through ultrasound treatment: Impacts on physical-chemical properties and protein structure

Mung bean-based milk (MBM) is a novel plant-based milk that offers several benefits. However, being a legume, the biggest challenge of MBM is its instability and off-flavor. The present study investigated changes in physical-chemical properties and flavor compounds during the ultrasound treatment of MBM. Compared to the untreated and ultrasonic samples before enzyme hydrolysis (UBE), the ultrasonic samples after enzyme hydrolysis and before homogenization (UBH) exhibited a smaller average particle size, higher magnitude of zeta potential, a homogenous structure, and fewer fragments. Ultrasound treatment shifted the protein secondary structure from ordered to disordered. The sample treated by ultrasound after enzymatic hydrolysis for 25 min had the highest free SH group, the lowest surface tension and the highest surface hydrophobicity, preventing protein aggregation. The off-flavor compounds in MBM, including pentanol, hexanol, and hexanal were significantly reduced in UBH 25 min sample. In conclusion, ultrasonication impacted the physical-chemical properties and flavor compounds considerably to improve the stability and flavor of MBM.

A comprehensive review of processing, functionality, and potential applications of lentil proteins in the food industry

There is a pressing need for sustainable sources of proteins to address the escalating food demands of the expanding global population, without damaging the environment. Lentil proteins offer a more sustainable alternative to animal-derived proteins (such as those from meat, fish, eggs, or milk). They are abundant, affordable, protein rich, nutritious, and functional, which makes them highly appealing as ingredients in the food, personal care, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and other industries. In this article, the chemical composition, nutritional value, and techno-functional properties of lentil proteins are reviewed. Then, recent advances on the extraction, purification, and modification of lentil proteins are summarized. Hurdles to the widespread utilization of lentil proteins in the food industry are highlighted, along with potential strategies to surmount these challenges. Finally, the potential applications of lentil protein in foods and beverages are discussed. The intention of this article is to offer an up-to-date overview of research on lentil proteins, addressing gaps in the knowledge related to their potential nutritional benefits and functional advantages for application within the food industry. This includes exploring the utilization of lentil proteins as nanocarriers for bioactive compounds, emulsifiers, edible inks for 3D food printing, meat analogs, and components of biodegradable packaging.

Improving physical stability of microalgae protein-based emulsions under acidic and neutral conditions via carboxymethyl chitosan complexation

The emulsification stability of microalgae protein (MP) is limited to strongly alkaline conditions, restricting its applications in food processing. This study aims to investigate the capability of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) to improve MP's emulsification stability over a wider pH range. Results indicated soluble MP-CMCS complexes formed at pH 2, 4, and 7, while aggregation of the complexes occurred at pH 8. The complexes stabilized emulsions exhibited smaller droplet sizes and higher absolute zeta potential at pH 2, 4, and 7 compared to pH 8. After 2 weeks of storage, emulsions remained stable at pH 2, 4, and 7, with significant delamination at pH 8. Laser confocal microscopy confirmed uniform droplet distribution at pH 2 and 7, with slight fusion at pH 4. The complexes stabilized emulsions exhibited higher viscosity and shear stress than MP stabilized emulsions at pH 2, 4, and 7. The stronger viscoelastic properties and higher storage moduli (G') values of MP-CMCS complexes under acidic and neutral conditions indicated stronger intermolecular interactions compared to alkaline conditions. The increase in G' and loss moduli (G") values for emulsions at pH 8 under stress highlighted the significant impact on network structure strength and viscosity in these emulsions. This study elucidated the binding interactions between MP and CMCS under various pH conditions, and demonstrated a feasible approach to improving MP's emulsification stability over a wider pH range.

Recent progress in plant-based proteins: From extraction and modification methods to applications in the food industry

Plant proteins can meet consumers' demand for healthy and sustainable alternatives to animal proteins. It has been reported to possess numerous health benefits and is widely used in the food industry. However, conventional extraction methods are time-consuming, energy-intensive, as well as environmentally unfriendly. Plant proteins are also limited in application due to off-flavors, allergies, and anti-nutritional factors. Therefore, this paper discusses the challenges and limitations of conventional extraction processes. The current advances in green extraction technologies are also summarized. In addition, methods to improve the nutritional value, bioactivity, functional and organoleptic properties of plant proteins, and strategies to reduce their allergenicity are mentioned. Finally, examples of applications of plant proteins in the food industry are presented. This review aims to stimulate thinking and generate new ideas for future research. It will also provide new ideas and broad perspectives for the application of plant proteins in the food industry.

Comparative study of Maillard reaction and blending between soybean protein isolate and soluble soybean polysaccharide: Physicochemical, structure and functional properties

Soybean protein isolate-soluble soybean polysaccharide (SPI-SSPS) complexes and mixtures with varying SPI/SSPS concentration ratios (1: 1, 2:1, 4:1, 8:1) were prepared by Maillard reaction and blending, respectively, and their physicochemical, structure, and functional properties were compared studied. The physical stability of SPI-SSPS complex, which consisted of CN and CS bonds, was better than that of the SPI/SSPS mixture with electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds, and both were superior SPI alone. The complex with SPI/SSPS concentration ratio of 8:1 had the highest grafting degree (33.25 %) and a more ordered structure, making its solubility and emulsifying property lower than the SPI/SSPS mixture; however, the physical and thermal stability of the SPI-SSPS complex was higher than that of the SPI and SPI/SSPS mixture. In particular, the SPI-SSPS complex with a high grafting degree showed a higher thermal denaturation temperature (194.06 °C). This study aimed to provide effective modification methods to utilize soybean processing by-products by modifying soybean protein isolate with soluble soybean polysaccharide.

Alternative proteins; A path to sustainable diets and environment

With a growing global population and the resulting pressure on natural resources, the supply of high-value protein has become increasingly limited. The rise of environmental and ethical concerns has led to the emergence of meat analogues as a credible alternative to traditional animal-derived meat. Growing demand for plant-based protein sources has gained attention as viable alternatives to conventional animal proteins. This article reviews commercially available plant proteins for meat replacement and evaluates recent research on producing meat analogues, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Beyond production, an examination of the physicochemical, textural, and structural attributes of the meat alternatives is conducted, highlighting the improvements made in achieving sensory and nutritional parallels with animal-derived meat. Furthermore, this article explores the current commercial applications of meat alternatives, highlighting the challenges faced in their widespread adoption and suggesting future research directions. The comparison of the environmental impacts of plant proteins and animal proteins is also presented. The ultimate goal is to develop meat substitutes that closely mimic the sensory, nutritional, and aesthetic qualities of real meat. Despite promising innovations in processing technologies, challenges remain that researchers are actively addressing to close the gap between plant-based meat analogues and animal-derived counterparts.

Composite hydrogels assembled from food-grade biopolymers: Fabrication, properties, and applications

Biopolymer hydrogels have a broad range of applications as soft materials in a variety of commercial products, including foods, cosmetics, agrochemicals, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and biomedical products. They consist of a network of entangled or crosslinked biopolymer molecules that traps relatively large quantities of water and provides semi-solid properties, like viscoelasticity or plasticity. Composite biopolymer hydrogels contain inclusions (fillers) to enhance their functional properties, including solid particles, liquid droplets, gas bubbles, nanofibers, or biological cells. These fillers vary in their composition, size, shape, rheology, and surface properties, which influences their impact on the rheological properties of the biopolymer hydrogels. In this article, the various types of biopolymers used to fabricate composite hydrogels are reviewed, with an emphasis on edible proteins and polysaccharides from sustainable sources, such as plants, algae, or microbial fermentation. The different kinds of gelling mechanism exhibited by these biopolymers are then discussed, including heat-, cold-, ion-, pH-, enzyme-, and pressure-set mechanisms. The different ways that biopolymer molecules can organize themselves in single and mixed biopolymer hydrogels are then highlighted, including polymeric, particulate, interpenetrating, phase-separated, and co-gelling systems. The impacts of incorporating fillers on the rheological properties of composite biopolymer hydrogels are then discussed, including mathematical models that have been developed to describe these effects. Finally, potential applications of composite biopolymer hydrogels are presented, including as delivery systems, packaging materials, artificial tissues, wound healing materials, meat analogs, filters, and adsorbents. The information provided in this article is intended to stimulate further research into the development and application of composite biopolymer hydrogels.

Effect of exogenous selenium on physicochemical, structural, functional, thermal, and gel rheological properties of mung bean (Vigna radiate L.) protein

Selenium (Se) biofortification during the growth process of mung bean is an effective method to improve the Se content and quality. However, the effect of Se biofortification on the physicochemical properties of mung bean protein is unclear. The objective of this study was to clarify the changes in the composition, Se forms, particle structure, functional properties, thermal stability, and gel properties of mung bean protein at four Se application levels. The results showed that the Se content of mung bean protein increased in a dose-dependent manner, with 7.96-fold (P1) and 8.52-fold (P2) enhancement at the highest concentration. Exogenous Se application promotes the conversion of inorganic Se to organic Se. Among them, selenomethionine (SeMet) and methyl selenocysteine (MeSeCys) replaced Met and Cys through the S metabolic pathway and became the dominant organic Se forms in Se-enriched mung bean protein, accounting for more than 80 % of the total Se content. Exogenous Se at 30 g/hm2 significantly up-regulated protein content and promoted the synthesis of sulfur-containing protein components and hydrophobic amino acids in the presence of increased levels of SeMet and MeSeCys. Meanwhile, Cys and Met substitution altered the sulfhydryl groups (SH), β-sheets, and β-turns of protein. The particle size and microstructural characteristics depend on the protein itself and were not affected by exogenous Se. The Se-induced increase in the content of hydrophobic amino acids and β-sheets synergistically increases the thermal stability of the protein. Moderate Se application altered the functional properties of mung bean protein, which was mainly reflected in the significant increase in oil holding capacity (OHC) and foaming capacity (FC). In addition, the increase in SH and β-sheets induced by exogenous Se could alter the protein intermolecular network, contributing to the increase in storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″), which resulted in the formation of more highly elastic gels. This study further promotes the application of mung bean protein in the field of food processing and provides a theoretical basis for the extensive development of Se-enriched mung bean protein.

Exploring Volatile Profiles and De-Flavoring Strategies for Enhanced Acceptance of Lentil-Based Foods: A Review

Lentils are marketed as dry seeds, fresh sprouts, flours, protein isolates, and concentrates used as ingredients in many traditional and innovative food products, including dairy and meat analogs. Appreciated for their nutritional and health benefits, lentil ingredients and food products may be affected by off-flavor notes described as "beany", "green", and "grassy", which can limit consumer acceptance. This narrative review delves into the volatile profiles of lentil ingredients and possible de-flavoring strategies, focusing on their effectiveness. Assuming that appropriate storage and processing are conducted, so as to prevent or limit undesired oxidative phenomena, several treatments are available: thermal (pre-cooking, roasting, and drying), non-thermal (high-pressure processing, alcohol washing, pH variation, and addition of adsorbents), and biotechnological (germination and fermentation), all of which are able to reduce the beany flavor. It appears that lentil is less studied than other legumes and more research should be conducted. Innovative technologies with great potential, such as high-pressure processing or the use of adsorbents, have been not been explored in detail or are still totally unexplored for lentil. In parallel, the development of lentil varieties with a low LOX and lipid content, as is currently in progress for soybean and pea, would significantly reduce off-flavor notes.

Canavanine Content Quantification in Processed Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia) and Its Application as Flour in Breads: An Analysis of Nutritional and Sensory Attributes

Bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia Willd.) is a traditional Mediterranean-West Asian legume, mainly used as livestock feed because of its toxic non-proteinogenic amino acid, canavanine. However, historical sources suggest its past human consumption. Currently, bitter vetch is a minor crop confined to marginal soils in semi-arid regions, presenting a potential alternative protein source amid projected climate changes. This study evaluated the nutritional and sensory attributes of bitter vetch seeds processed through various household methods. Germination and cooking significantly reduced the canavanine content by 28% and 60%, respectively. Incorporating bitter vetch flour (BVF) into wheat bread enhanced protein and fiber contents without substantially altering carbohydrate and lipid levels, and the baking process reduced the canavanine content by 40%. Bitter vetch flour enriched the bread with iron and calcium, contributing significantly to their daily nutritional intakes. Sensory evaluations indicated positive reception for bread with 12% BVF, achieving a balance between nutritional enhancement and consumer acceptance. This study identifies bitter vetch seeds as a valuable resource for improving bread formulations with corrected gluten contents and enhanced protein quality, as measured using protein-digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) values. With strategic processing and formulation adjustments, bitter vetch has the potential to re-emerge as a feasible high-protein grain crop, promoting sustainable farming.

Advancements in plant based meat analogs enhancing sensory and nutritional attributes

The burgeoning demand for plant-based meat analogs (PBMAs) stems from environmental, health, and ethical concerns, yet replicating the sensory attributes of animal meat remains challenging. This comprehensive review explores recent innovations in PBMA ingredients and methodologies, emphasizing advancements in texture, flavor, and nutritional profiles. It chronicles the transition from soy-based first-generation products to more diversified second- and third-generation PBMAs, showcasing the utilization of various plant proteins and advanced processing techniques to enrich sensory experiences. The review underscores the crucial role of proteins, polysaccharides, and fats in mimicking meat's texture and flavor and emphasizes research on new plant-based sources to improve product quality. Addressing challenges like production costs, taste, texture, and nutritional adequacy is vital for enhancing consumer acceptance and fostering a more sustainable food system.

Processing parameters, techno-functional properties and potential food application of lentil protein concentrate as an ingredient for the plant-based market

Lentil (Lens culinaris) is a protein-rich legume consumed worldwide and it also has the potential to become an alternative source of protein ingredient for human nutrition. The aim of this study was to determine the best processing parameters for the whole grain protein wet extraction, as well as to analyze the techno-functional properties, and physical characteristics of the protein concentrate and its flour. It was also evaluated the application of the concentrate into a fish-like croquette. The processing route was carried out by alkaline extraction and acid precipitation of the proteins where the pH, stirring time and solute:solvent ratio were evaluated. The final dried protein concentrate presented 85% protein on dry basis and a mass yield of 14%. The results were reproducible when tested on a first scaling up test. For the techno-functional properties, solubility, water and oil retention capacities, emulsification and foaming capacities and stability, and gelling capacity were tested. As for the food application into fish-like croquettes, the lentil protein showed similar scores for sensory acceptance, flavor and texture when compared to a commercial clean-taste concentrate. The results observed in this study were compatible to other alternative pulse-protein ingredients on the market, positioning lentil protein as a promising alternative protein source to produce ingredients for the plant-based market.

Impact of Fava Bean (Vicia faba) Processing on Quality Characteristics and Digestibility of a Protein-Rich Snack

The impact of fava bean processing methods (soaking, autoclaving, fermentation) on a legume-based bars' quality, protein characteristics, and digestibility was shown. The antioxidant and the angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory capacity before and after in vitro digestion were investigated to reveal the potential advantages of fava bean usage for snacks. All bars have demonstrated high protein content, varying from 22.1 to 25.1 g/100 g DB. Based on the fermented fava beans of Pleurotus ostreatus, the samples were characterized by a higher concentration of essential amino acids by 8.6% and a reduction of tannins by 18.5% compared with bars based on soaked fava beans. Sensory evaluation improved the color, texture, and overall acceptability of the bars with fermented legumes. Various types of bean processing did not significantly affect the protein digestibility of the bars. The fermentation method positively affected the angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory properties of bars and increased by 16.5% (before digestion) and 15% (after digestion) compared with other samples. After digestion, samples were characterized by a high level of Fe bioaccessibility (100, 83, and 79% for the bars based on soaked, autoclaved, and fermented fava beans, respectively) and increased total phenolic content. These findings highlight the potential health benefits of fava bean usage for snack products.

Influence of dual succinylation and ultrasonication modification on the amino acid content, structural and functional properties of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) protein concentrate

Chickpea protein, a valuable plant-based source, offers versatile applications, yet the impact of modifications like succinylation and ultrasonication on its properties remains unclear. This study explored dual succinylation and ultrasonication modification to enhance its functionality and application. Modified chickpea protein with a degree of succinylation of 96.75 %, showed enhanced water holding capacity 39.83 %, oil holding capacity 54.02 %, solubility 7.20 %, and emulsifying capacity 23.17 %, compared to native protein. Despite reduced amino acid content (64.50 %), particularly lysine, succinylation increased sulfhydryl by 1.74 %, reducing hydrophobicity (Ho) by 41.87 % and causing structural changes. Ultrasonication further reduced particle size by 82.57 % and increased zeta potential and amino acid content (57.47 %). The dual-modified protein exhibited a non-significant increase in antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (25.93 ± 1.36 mm) compared to the native protein (25.28 ± 1.05 mm). In conclusion, succinylation combined with ultrasonication offers a promising strategy to enhance chickpea protein's physicochemical properties for diverse applications.

Recent advances in mung bean protein: From structure, function to application

With the surge in protein demand, the application of plant proteins has ushered in a new wave of research. Mung bean is a potential source of protein due to its high protein content (20-30 %). The nutrition, structure, function, and application of mung bean protein have always been a focus of attention. In this paper, these highlighted points have been reviewed to explore the potential application value of mung bean protein. Mung bean protein contains a higher content of essential amino acids than soybean protein, which can meet the amino acid values recommended by FAO/WHO for adults. Mung bean protein also can promote human health due to its bioactivity, such as the antioxidant, and anti-cancer activity. Meanwhile, mung bean protein also has well solubility, foaming, emulsification and gelation properties. Therefore, mung bean protein can be used as an antioxidant edible film additive, emulsion-based food, active substance carrier, and meat analogue in the food industry. It is understood there are still relatively few commercial applications of mung bean protein. This paper highlights the potential application of mung bean proteins, and aims to provide a reference for future commercial applications of mung bean proteins.

Oral Astringency in Plant Proteins: An Underestimated Issue in Formulating Next-Generation Plant-Based Foods

Ensuring the supply of affordable, palatable, healthy, and sustainable nutrients to feed the growing population without transgressing the planetary boundaries remains a key challenge in the food science community. A dietary transition toward low-emission, plant-based foods, with less reliance on animal agriculture, is advocated for sustainability, health, and ethical reasons. A major hurdle for mainstream adoption of plant-based foods is their poor sensorial performance, such as nonjuicy and astringent textures as well as various off-flavors. This review presents the current understanding of astringency and oral friction of plant-based foods. It focuses on plant proteins and their application in plant-based meat and dairy analogs. In addition, the latest advances in the quantitative characterization of astringency using tribology, electrochemistry, and cellular tools are covered. Finally, we examine factors influencing astringency and propose easy-to-implement colloidal strategies that may mitigate astringency issues, thereby underpinning the design of the next generation of sustainable and pleasurable plant-based foods.

A Review of Bioactive Compound Effects from Primary Legume Protein Sources in Human and Animal Health

The global demand for sustainable and nutritious food sources has catalyzed interest in legumes, known for their rich repertoire of health-promoting compounds. This review delves into the diverse array of bioactive peptides, protein subunits, isoflavones, antinutritional factors, and saponins found in the primary legume protein sources-soybeans, peas, chickpeas, and mung beans. The current state of research on these compounds is critically evaluated, with an emphasis on the potential health benefits, ranging from antioxidant and anticancer properties to the management of chronic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. The extensively studied soybean is highlighted and the relatively unexplored potential of other legumes is also included, pointing to a significant, underutilized resource for developing health-enhancing foods. The review advocates for future interdisciplinary research to further unravel the mechanisms of action of these bioactive compounds and to explore their synergistic effects. The ultimate goal is to leverage the full spectrum of benefits offered by legumes, not only to advance human health but also to contribute to the sustainability of food systems. By providing a comprehensive overview of the nutraceutical potential of legumes, this manuscript sets a foundation for future investigations aimed at optimizing the use of legumes in the global pursuit of health and nutritional security.

Mung bean protein as an emerging source of plant protein: a review on production methods, functional properties, modifications and its potential applications

Plant protein is rapidly becoming more of a prime interest to consumers for its nutritional and functional properties, as well as the potential to replace animal protein. In the frame of alternative protein new sources, mung bean is becoming another legume crop that could provide high quality plant protein after soybean and pea. In particular, the 8S globulins in mung bean protein have high structural similarity and homology with soybean β-conglycinin (7S globulin), with 68% sequence identity. Currently, mung bean protein has gained popularity in food industry because of its high nutritional value and peculiar functional properties. In that regard, various modification technologies have been applied to further broaden its application. Here, we provide a review of the composition, nutritional value, production methods, functional properties and modification technologies of mung bean protein. Furthermore, its potential applications in the new plant-based products, meat products, noodles, edible packaging films and bioactive compound carriers are highlighted to facilitate its utilization as an alternative plant protein, thus meeting consumer demands for high quality plant protein resources. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of nitrogen fertilizer on the physicochemical, structural, functional, thermal, and rheological properties of mung bean (Vigna radiata) protein

Nitrogen fertilizer can affect the seed quality of mung bean. However, the effects of nitrogen fertilizer on the properties of mung bean protein (MBP) remain unclear. We investigated the effects of four nitrogen fertilization levels on the physicochemical, structural, functional, thermal, and rheological properties of MBP. The results showed that the amino acid and protein contents of mung bean flour were maximized under 90 kg ha-1 of applied nitrogen treatment. Nitrogen fertilization can alter the secondary and tertiary structure of MBP. The main manifestations are an increase in the proportion of β-sheet, the exposure of more chromophores and hydrophobic groups, and the formation of loose porous aggregates. These changes improved the solubility, oil absorption capacity, emulsion activity, and foaming stability of MBP. Meanwhile, Thermodynamic and rheological analyses showed that the thermal stability, apparent viscosity, and gel elasticity of MBP were all increased under nitrogen fertilizer treatment. Correlation analysis showed that protein properties are closely related to changes in structure. In conclusion, nitrogen fertilization can improve the protein properties of MBP by modulating the structure of protein molecules. This study provides a theoretical basis for the optimization of mung bean cultivation and the further development of high-quality mung bean protein foods.

Dry-fractionated protein concentrate as egg replacer in sponge cake: how the rheological properties of the batters affect the physical and structural quality of the products

BACKGROUND

Egg replacement is a notable food trend for academics and industry. Dry-fractionated protein concentrates (DFp) are minimally processed and sustainable ingredients. DFp from chickpea, red lentil and mung bean, prepared as aqueous dispersions at 20-40% (w/w), were used to replace egg in sponge cakes. To understand the effect of DFp on the physicochemical features of sponge cakes, the batter rheological properties (i.e., flow behavior, frequency-dependent and temperature-dependent behaviors) were investigated.

RESULTS

Frequency sweep revealed a higher storage modulus (G') than loss modulus (G″), indicating predominantly elastic-like behavior, dependent on the frequency. Increasing DFp content, especially at 40%, resulted in firmer batters, indicated by elevated apparent viscosity. During temperature sweep, G' increased starting from 80 °C in all DFp-based batters, indicating protein and starch conformational changes. Higher DFp content better simulated the egg behavior, affecting specific volume and thickness variation after baking but resulting in harder cakes. Crumb structure was similar to the control, highlighting that DFp can emulate the egg behavior in cake preparation. Protein content in cakes containing 30% DFp was similar to the control. However, the addition of DFp caused an increase in phytic acid. Sensory analysis of sponge cakes revealed differences in crust color, sweetness and legume flavor, with minimal effect on astringency. Chickpea and lentil DFp are suggested as preferred alternatives because of their to milder sensory impact.

CONCLUSION

Overall, eggs in cake formulation can be substituted by plant-based protein produced by dry fractionation. However, further research is essential to evaluate the nutritional characteristics. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Pulse Protein Isolates as Competitive Food Ingredients: Origin, Composition, Functionalities, and the State-of-the-Art Manufacturing

The ever-increasing world population and environmental stress are leading to surging demand for nutrient-rich food products with cleaner labeling and improved sustainability. Plant proteins, accordingly, are gaining enormous popularity compared with counterpart animal proteins in the food industry. While conventional plant protein sources, such as wheat and soy, cause concerns about their allergenicity, peas, beans, chickpeas, lentils, and other pulses are becoming important staples owing to their agronomic and nutritional benefits. However, the utilization of pulse proteins is still limited due to unclear pulse protein characteristics and the challenges of characterizing them from extensively diverse varieties within pulse crops. To address these challenges, the origins and compositions of pulse crops were first introduced, while an overarching description of pulse protein physiochemical properties, e.g., interfacial properties, aggregation behavior, solubility, etc., are presented. For further enhanced functionalities, appropriate modifications (including chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatment) are necessary. Among them, non-covalent complexation and enzymatic strategies are especially preferable during the value-added processing of clean-label pulse proteins for specific focus. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the interrelationships between the composition, structure, functional characteristics, and advanced modification strategies of pulse proteins, which is a pillar of high-performance pulse protein in future food manufacturing.

Physicochemical and chemical properties of mung bean protein isolate affected by the isolation procedure

The effects of different mung bean protein isolation methods on the chemical composition, the physicochemical properties, and selected antinutritional factors of mung bean protein isolates were investigated. Six protein isolates were prepared by isoelectric precipitation at different extraction pH levels (pH 8 and 9), by micellization, and by hybrid isolation at varying salt concentrations (0.25 M, 0.50 M, 0.75 M). The extraction conditions affected the amount of antinutritive compounds of the isolates. Compared to mung bean flour, micellization reduced phytic acid content by approximately 48% and trypsin inhibitor activity by around 88%. The remaining phytic acid concentration of the isolates influenced their re-solubility, particularly under acidic conditions. The protein isolates exhibited significant differences in surface hydrophobicity and thermal characteristics, indicating structural modifications caused by the extraction methods. Micellization and extraction at pH 8 were identified as mildest isolation methods, as evidenced by the highest enthalpy values. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated an enrichment of globulins and comparable protein profiles among the isolates, suggesting that the observed differences arise from conformational changes rather than variations in protein composition. The product yield in protein extraction from mung beans ranged from 8% to 19%, emphasizing the importance of enhancing overall extraction efficiency or exploring the utilization of by-products obtained during the protein isolation process.

Characterization of a Dihydromyricetin/α-Lactoalbumin Covalent Complex and Its Application in Nano-emulsions

A dihydromyricetin (DMY)/α-lactoalbumin (α-La) covalent complex was prepared and characterized, and its application in nano-emulsions was also evaluated in this study. The results suggested that the covalent complex could be obtained using the alkaline method. The UV and IR spectra confirmed the formation of the covalent complex, and the amount of DMY added was positively correlated with the total phenol content of the complex. The complex had an outstanding 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS)-radical-scavenging ability, reducing power and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, which were positively related to its total phenol content. The complex could be used as an emulsifier to stabilize the β-carotene-loaded nano-emulsion. The stability and β-carotene-protective capacity of the nano-emulsion stabilized by the complex were also positively related to the total phenol content of the complex, being higher than those of the nano-emulsion developed using α-La. Our results provide a reference for the construction of a new food delivery system and extend the applications of α-La and DMY in foods.

Rheological properties of dry-fractionated mung bean protein and structural, textural, and rheological evaluation of meat analogues produced by high-moisture extrusion cooking

A closed cavity rheometer was used to study the rheology of dry-fractionated mung bean protein -DFMB- (55% protein d.m.). Then, the high-moisture extrusion cooking at 40% and 50% moisture contents and different temperatures (115, 125, 135 and 145 °C) was performed, investigating the impact on structural, textural, and rheological properties of extrudates. When subjected to a temperature ramp (40-170 °C), DFMB showed an increase of G* from 70 °C, as a consequence of starch gelatinization and protein gelation. The peak, indicating the end of aggregation reactions, was at 105 °C and 110 °C for DFMB at 50% and 40% moisture content, respectively. The time sweep analysis described the protein behavior in no-shear/shear conditions, highlighting a more pronounced effect of the temperatures compared to moisture content. During the extrusion cooking, the temperature increase led to a decrease of pressure, indicating a reduction of the melt viscosity. The microstructure of the extrudates showed a more pronounced anisotropic profile when higher temperatures were applied. Hardness, chewiness, and cohesion were directly correlated with the temperature, which also affected the rheological properties of extrudates. A combination of textural and rheological analyses can offer a clear overview of the structural characteristics of meat analogues.

A comprehensive review of mung bean proteins: Extraction, characterization, biological potential, techno-functional properties, modifications, and applications

The popularity of plant-based proteins has increased, and mung bean protein (MBP) has gained immense attention due to its high yield, nutritional value, and health benefits. MBP is rich in lysine and has a highly digestible indispensable amino acid score. Dry and wet extractions are used to extract MBP flours and concentrates/isolates, respectively. To enhance the quality of commercial MBP flours, further research is needed to refine the purity of MBPs using dry extraction methods. Furthermore, MBP possesses various biological potential and techno-functional properties, but its use in food systems is limited by some poor functionalities, such as solubility. Physical, biological, and chemical technologies have been used to improve the techno-functional properties of MBP, which has expanded its applications in traditional foods and novel fields, such as microencapsulation, three-dimensional printing, meat analogs, and protein-based films. However, study on each modification technique remains inadequate. Future research should prioritize exploring the impact of these modifications on the biological potential of MBP and its internal mechanisms of action. This review aims to provide ideas and references for future research and the development of MBP processing technology.

Comparative study on molecular and higher-order structures of legume seed protein isolates: Lentil, mungbean and yellow pea

Lentils and mungbean proteins are under-researched compared to pea and soybean. Lentils (green, red and black-lentils), mungbean and yellow pea protein isolates were obtained by alkaline extraction (pH 9)-isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.5) and investigated for molecular and higher-order structures using complementary and novel approaches. These extracted isolates showed comparable protein content but significantly greater nitrogen solubility index (NSI > 85 %) than commercial pea and soy protein isolates (NSI < 60 %). Based on molecular weight estimations from sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis, the soluble proteins of lentils and yellow pea were identified as legumin-like and vicilin-like, while mungbean was dominated by vicilin-like proteins. The soluble extracts were confirmed to be in native structural condition by size exclusion chromatography and nano-differential scanning calorimetry, unlike commercial extracts. Further differences in secondary structure were evident on circular dichroism spectra of the soluble extracts and deconvolution of the Amide I region (1700-1600 cm-1) from Fourier Transform Infrared of the total protein.

Structural and Thermal Characterization of Protein Isolates from Australian Lupin Varieties as Affected by Processing Conditions

Proteins from the full and defatted flours of L. angustifolius cv Jurien and L. albus cv Murringo were prepared using alkaline extraction and iso-electric precipitation. Isolates were either freeze dried or spray dried or pasteurized at 75 ± 3 °C/5 min before freeze-drying. Various structural properties were investigated to elucidate the varietal and processing-induced effect on molecular and secondary structure. Irrespective of processing, isolated proteins had a similar molecular size, with α-conglutin (412 kDa) and β-conglutin (210 kDa) being principal fractions for the albus and angustifolius variety, respectively. Smaller peptide fragments were observed for the pasteurized and spray dried samples, indicating some degree of processing-induced changes. Furthermore, secondary structure characterization by Fourier-transform-infrared and circular dichroism spectroscopy showed β-sheet and α-helical structure being the dominant structure, respectively. Thermal characterization showed two denaturation peaks corresponding to β-conglutin (T_d = 85-89 °C) and α-conglutin (T_d = 102-105 °C) fractions. However, the enthalpy values for α-conglutin denaturation were significantly higher for albus species, which corroborates well with higher amounts of heat stable α-conglutin present. Amino acid profile was similar for all samples with limiting sulphur amino acid. In summary, commercial processing conditions did not have a profound effect on the various structural properties of lupin protein isolates, and properties were mainly determined by varietal differences.