Current trends in flavor encapsulation: A comprehensive review of emerging encapsulation techniques, flavour release, and mathematical modelling

Advances in Microencapsulation of Flavor Substances: Preparation Techniques, Wall Material Selection, Characterization Methods, and Applications

This review systematically examines advances in flavor microencapsulation technology from 2014 to 2024, focusing on innovations in preparation techniques, trends in wall material selection, and characterization methods. Literature metrological analysis shows that spray drying is the predominant technology (25% of reports); its shortcomings in volatile flavor retention have driven improved strategies such as vacuum low-temperature drying, ultrasound assistance, and monodisperse atomization. Emerging technologies such as electrohydrodynamic methods (electrospinning/electrospraying) and supercritical fluid processing are favored due to their nonthermal advantages. Overall, traditional polysaccharides have been widely used due to their good emulsifying and stabilizing properties. In the meanwhile, plant-based polysaccharides (e.g., inulin, hemicellulose) and proteins (e.g., pea protein) are increasingly preferred as the wall materials driven by sustainability and clean-labeling requirements. Morphological analysis and particle size and distribution studies have highlighted the key role of microstructure in stability and release kinetics, with multicore and multishell structures optimizing controlled release performance. Despite progress, gaps remain in the standardized assessment of encapsulation efficacy, the cost-effectiveness of novel materials, and practical food applications. In the future, a combination of interdisciplinary approaches is needed to investigate low-energy preparation technologies, functionalized wall materials, and intelligent release mechanisms to achieve the better application of flavor microencapsulates in food.

A comprehensive review of starch-based technology for encapsulation of flavor: From methods, materials, and release mechanism to applications

Encapsulation of flavor and aroma compounds in appropriate materials and forms has long been an important issue. Encapsulation of flavor in inexpensive, stable, and widely used starch-based materials could preserve or mask characteristic aroma compounds, improve flavor thermal and oxidative stability, control release, and increase bioavailability. However, several technical challenges still hinder the application of starch-based encapsulated flavor complexes in the food industry. This study comprehensively and systematically the encapsulation technology of starch-based materials, the properties and applications of starch-based materials, and the flavor release mechanism of encapsulated compounds, aiming to provide insights into the rational design of starch-encapsulated flavor. While choosing flavor encapsulation materials for industries, starch, cyclodextrins, maltodextrin, octenyl succinic anhydride starches, and porous starch are worthy of consideration. On this basis, future research directions for the nutritional value of starch-encapsulated flavor compounds and their application in the food industry are proposed. To elucidate the release mechanisms and application efficiencies of various starch-based flavor complexes, it is necessary to investigate the conformational interactions as well as applications in various food and gastrointestinal systems.

Bioactive compound encapsulation: Characteristics, applications in food systems, and implications for human health

Nanotechnology plays a pivotal role in food science, particularly in the nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds, to enhance their stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic potential. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the encapsulation of bioactive compounds, emphasizing the characteristics, food applications, and implications for human health. This work offers a detailed comparison of polymers such as sodium alginate, gum Arabic, chitosan, cellulose, pectin, shellac, and xanthan gum, while also examining both conventional and emerging encapsulation techniques, including freeze-drying, spray-drying, extrusion, coacervation, and supercritical anti-solvent drying. The contribution of this review lies in highlighting the role of encapsulation in improving system stability, controlling release rates, maintaining bioactivity under extreme conditions, and reducing lipid oxidation. Furthermore, it explores recent technological advances aimed at optimizing encapsulation processes for targeted therapies and functional foods. The findings underline the significant potential of encapsulation not only in food supplements and functional foods but also in supportive medical treatments, showcasing its relevance to improving human health in various contexts.

Encapsulation of D-limonene in Lepidium perfoliatum seed gum/PVA electrospun nanofibers: Physicochemical characterization and modeling the kinetics of release

To improve the stability of D-limonene, a protective barrier is essential to prevent degradation and maintain its integrity. Therefore, the potential of using Lepidium perfoliatum seed gum (LPSG) as a novel source for creating electrospun nanofibers for D-limonene encapsulation was investigated by varying LPSG concentrations (0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% w/v) and LPSG/PVA (Polyvinyl alcohol) mixing ratios (ranging from 100:0 to 0:100 v/v). Surface tension, electrical conductivity, zeta potential, and viscosity of solutions increased as LPSG concentration and its ratio in the LPSG/PVA blend increased. Uniform, smooth, and small size nanofibers were created by electrospinning a LPSG to PVA ratio of 30:70 (v/v) using LPSG concentrations of 0.5% (w/v) and 0.75% (w/v). The FTIR analysis demonstrated that D-limonene was physically trapped within the nanofibers and confirmed the compatibility of LPSG and PVA. Following its encapsulation inside LPSG/PVA nanofibers, D-limonene's thermal stability increased. The highest D-limonene encapsulation efficiency was 96.23% for 0.75% LPSG/PVA nanofibers, which was chosen to measure the D-limonene release kinetics in simulated food models. D-limonene was most readily released in distilled water with an explosive release mechanism. The mechanism of D-limonene release from LPSG/PVA electrospun nanofibers was best described by the Peppas-Sahlin model, and the release followed Fickian diffusion mechanism. The results of this study confirmed the potential of LPSG/PVA electrospun nanofibers to effectively trap D-limonene and improve its thermal stability.

Mechanisms of slow-release antibacterial properties in chitosan‑titanium dioxide stabilized perilla essential oil Pickering emulsions: Focusing on oil-water interfacial behaviors

Perilla essential oil (PLEO) offers benefits for food preservation and healthcare, yet its instability restricts its applications. In this study, chitosan (CS) and TiO2 used to prepare composite particles. TiO2, after being modified with sodium laurate (SL), was successfully introduced at 0.1 %-3 % into the CS matrix. The resulting CS-SL-TiO2 composite particles can be formed by intertwining and rearranging through intramolecular and intermolecular interactions, and form an O/W interface with stability and viscoelasticity. The Pickering emulsions stabilized by these particles exhibit non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behavior, shear-thinning properties, and slow-release characteristics, along with antibacterial activity. Emulsions with 0.5 % and 1 % CS-SL-TiO2 composites demonstrated superior antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The study revealed that all emulsions undergo Fickian diffusion and a sustained release of PLEO, with the Ritger-Peppas model best describing this release mechanism. The slow-release behaviors positively correlates with interfacial pressure, composite particle size, composite particle potential, composite contact angle, emulsion particle size and emulsion potential, but negatively correlates with diffusion rate, penetration rate, release kinetics and release rate. The findings lay groundwork for developing slow-release antimicrobial emulsions within polysaccharide matrices, showcasing promise for antimicrobial packaging solutions and enhanced food preservation techniques.

Delivery and controlled release abilities of chitosan/carboxymethylcellulose micropolyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) toward niacinamide (vitamin B3)

The administration of bioactive compounds presents challenges due to the numerous physiological barriers in the gastrointestinal tract. To deal with one of these challenges, chitosan (CHS)/carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) micropolyelectrolyte complexes (micro-PECs) were developed without the use of crosslinking agents to carry niacinamide, a model hydrophilic bioactive agent. A Box-Behnken design was used to study the effects of processing time (X1 = 60, 120 or 180 min), pH (X2 = 3, 4 or 5) and niacinamide concentration (X3 = 0.02, 0.04 and 0.06, g·L-1) on the encapsulation efficiency (Y1) and loading capacity (Y2) of niacinamide by CMC/CHS micro-PECs. The encapsulation efficiency (Y1) varied from 0.86 % to 80.78 %, whereas the loading capacity (Y2) varied between 0.03 % and 3.89 %. The digestibility of CMC/CHS micro-PECs containing niacinamide was evaluated in vitro via a static gastrointestinal model. Empirical models (Zero Order, First Order, Higuchi and Korsemeyer-Peppas) were fitted to the niacinamide release kinetics data. The zero-order model exhibited the best fit across all points (gastric and enteric digestion), with low zero-order constants (K0) ~ 0.002-0.003, indicating a regular and subdued release rate in all cases. These results highlight the applicability of CMC/CHS micro-PECs as an efficient, novel oral delivery system, surpassing conventional approaches by offering a sustained release and high encapsulation efficiency, without needing any additional chemical crosslinking agent for their obtention.

Sustained-release mechanism of β-Cyclodextrin/cationic cellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsions loaded with citrus essential oil

Citrus oil (CO) is a commonly used natural flavor with high volatility, which is not conducive to sustained release under food environmental stress. This study constructed novel β-cyclodextrin/cationic cellulose nanocrystal (β-CD/C-CNC) complexes via noncovalent interaction, which were used to stabilize CO-loaded Pickering emulsions (PEβ-CD/C-CNC). The C-CNC greatly improved the physical stability, droplet dispersion and viscoelasticity of PEβ-CD/C-CNC by forming a tight network structure, as verified by rheological behavior. Moreover, C-CNC improved the wettability of β-CD/C-CNC complexes and enhanced the interaction between adjacent β-CD/C-CNC complexes. C-CNC also contributed to the interfacial viscoelasticity, hydrated mass, and layer thickness via the interfacial dilational modulus and QCM-D. β-CD/C-CNC complexes adsorbed on the oil-water interface gave rise to a dense filling layer as a physical barrier, enhancing the sustained-release performance of PEβ-CD/C-CNC by limiting diffusion of citrus essential oil into the headspace. This study provides new technical approaches for aroma retention in the food industry.

Fabrication of ultrafine Himalayan walnut oil Pickering emulsions by ultrasonic emulsification: Techno-functional properties of emulsions and microcapsules

In present scenario, much of the attention has been put on the production and utilization of Pickering emulsions deciphering enhanced stability and applicability over wide environmental conditions. In this context the present study was carried out to elaborate effect of different wall materials and pH systems on the physicochemical, structural and morphological properties of Himalayan walnut oil Pickering emulsions by ultrasonic emulsification. In this study, concentrated Pickering emulsion of Himalayan walnut oil (HWO) was prepared utilizing soy protein isolate (SPI), maltodextrin (MD) stabilized by pectin at varying concentrations and pH systems (4.0, 7.0). With increase in pectin and SPI concentration and lowering MD, stable emulsions were obtained as deciphered by an Emulsion stability index (ESI) of 100 for 7 days at ambient storage. HWO Pickering emulsions were analysed for particle size measurements (2.13-13.64 µm) and depicted negative zeta potential values (-3.70 to -18.58). Lyophilized HWO microcapsules depicted moderate encapsulation efficiency (44.69-57.63 %) whereas the hygroscopicity values of the microcapsule ranged from (0.21-12.10 %). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the samples depicted the temperature of maximum degradation rate up to 550 °C whereas XRD spectra depicted amorphous nature of oil microcapsules. FTIR spectra revealed a close association between the SPI-MD-Pectin matrix. SEM analysis revealed stable oil globules entrapped in protein-polysaccharide matrix with no visible cracks and fissures.

Nanoencapsulation of limonene in octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-ST) and maltodextrin: Investigation and comparison of physicochemical properties, efficiency and morphology of nanoparticles

In recent years, the application of nanoencapsulation has attracted enormous attention for various food and pharmaceutical purposes. In this study, a functional powder containing limonene (the nutraceutical at concentration of 5 and 10 %) was prepared using octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-ST) and maltodextrin as carriers at 15 and 30 %. The emulsions were sonicated at a frequency of 30 kHz and a power of 100 W for 9 and 18 min, and the final nanoparticles were prepared through freeze-drying. The particle sizes were in the ranges of 62-248 and 10-24 nm in the suspensions of OSA and maltodextrin, respectively. The smaller particles of the maltodextrin-prepared sample resulted in more transparency. The zeta potential and consequently the stability of the maltodextrin-prepared emulsions were higher than those of the OSA-ST-prepared ones. As the maltodextrin concentration increased, this parameter was elevated from -42 to -36 as a result of the coverage of the surface-active lipids. The results of solubility correlated with those of the zeta potential (89.21 % for maltodextrin-prepared and 82.51 % for OSA-ST-prepared samples). The highest encapsulation efficiency (EE = 0.9) belonged to the samples prepared with OSA-ST. Comparison of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the type of the wall material influenced the physical structure of the nanoparticles which were mostly porous and flake-like. Considering its encapsulating-emulsifying properties, OSA-ST can be suggested as a carrier for limonene with the need for emulsifiers.

Microencapsulation Efficiency of Carboxymethylcellulose, Gelatin, Maltodextrin, and Acacia for Aroma Preservation in Jasmine Instant Tea

Enhancing the sensory appeal of jasmine instant tea, particularly its aroma, poses a significant challenge due to the loss of volatile organic compounds during conventional processing. This study introduces a novel approach to address this issue through the application of microencapsulation techniques, aimed at preserving these key aromatic elements. Our investigation focused on the encapsulating agents gelatin, acacia gum, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and maltodextrin, chosen for their compatibility with the volatile organic compounds of tea. A statistical analysis was conducted on the analytical results through comprehensive analytical techniques like Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA), and Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) analysis for microcapsule characterization. The statistical analysis revealed gelatin to be a particularly effective encapsulating medium, preserving an aroma profile more akin to fresh tea. The statistical analysis confirmed the reliability of these findings, highlighting the potential of microencapsulation in refining the quality of jasmine instant tea products. The results of this research suggest that microencapsulation could be instrumental in improving the sensory quality and shelf life of instant tea products, offering new opportunities for product enhancement in the beverage industry.

Insight into the interaction and binding mechanism of a natural nonnutritive sweetener mogroside V with soybean protein isolates based on multi-spectroscopic techniques and computational simulations

As a natural low-calorie sweetener, Mogroside V (Mog-V) has gradually become one of the alternatives to sucrose with superior health attributes. However, Mog-V will bring unpleasant aftertastes when exceeding a threshold concentration. To investigate the possibility of soy protein isolates (SPIs), namely β-conglycinin (7S), and glycinin (11S) as flavor-improving agents of Mog-V, the binding mechanism between Mog-V and SPIs was explored through multi-spectroscopy, particle size, zeta potential, and computational simulation. The results of the multi-spectroscopic experiments indicated that Mog-V enhanced the fluorescence of 7S/11S protein in a static mode. The binding affinity of 7S-Mog-V was greater compared with 11S-Mog-V. Particle size and zeta potential analysis revealed that the interaction could promote aggregation of 7S/11S protein with different stability. Furthermore, computational simulations further confirmed that Mog-V could interact with the 7S/11S protein in different ways. This research provides a theoretical foundation for the development and application of SPI to improve the flavor of Mog-V, opening a new avenue for further expanding the market demand for Mog-V.

Food nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges

Food nanotechnology, which applies nanotechnology to food systems ranging from food production to food processing, packaging, and transportation, provides tremendous opportunities for conventional food science and industry innovation and improvement. Although great progress and rapid growth have been achieved in food nanotechnology research owing to the unique food features rendered by nanotechnology, at a fundamental level, food nanotechnology is still in its initial stages and the potential adverse effects of nanomaterials are still a controversial problem that attract public attention. Food-derived nanomaterials, compared to some inorganic nanoparticles and synthetic organic macromolecules, can be digested rapidly and produce similar digestion products to those produced normally, which become the mainstream and trend for food nanotechnology in practical applications, and are expected to be a vital tool for addressing the security problem and easing public concerns. These food-derived materials enable the favourable characteristics of nanostructures to be combined with the safety, biocompatibility, and bioactivity of natural food. Very recently, diverse food-derived nanomaterials have been explored and widely applied in multiple fields. Herein, we thoroughly summarize the fabrication and development of nanomaterials for use in food technology, as well as the recent advances in the improvement of food quality, revolutionizing food supply, and boosting food industries based on foodborne nanomaterials. The current challenges in food nanotechnology are also discussed. We hope this review can provide a detailed reference for experts and food manufacturers and inspire researchers to participate in the development of food nanotechnology for highly efficient food industry growth.

Application of the molecular dynamics simulation GROMACS in food science

Food comprises proteins, lipids, sugars and various other molecules that constitute a multicomponent biological system. It is challenging to investigate microscopic changes in food systems solely by performing conventional experiments. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation serves as a crucial bridge in addressing this research gap. The Groningen Machine for Chemical Simulations (GROMACS) is an open-source, high-performing molecular dynamics simulation software that plays a significant role in food science research owing to its high flexibility and powerful functionality; it has been used to explore the molecular conformations and the mechanisms of interaction between food molecules at the microcosmic level and to analyze their properties and functions. This review presents the workflow of the GROMACS software and emphasizes the recent developments and achievements in its applications in food science research, thus providing important theoretical guidance and technical support for obtaining an in-depth understanding of the properties and functions of food.

Encapsulation of 4-terpineol with β-cyclodextrin: Inclusion mechanism, characterization and relative humidity-triggered release

4-Terpineol (4-TA), a typical monocyclic monoterpene essential oil compound with important biological activities, poor stability and solubility severely hamper its biological activities. To date, β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) encapsulating essential oil to form inclusion complexes (ICs) is considered as a satisfactory treatment. Nevertheless, the detailed inclusion mechanism of β-CD for 4-TA especially the behavior of 4-TA during inclusion formation have not available yet. Herein, 4-TA/β-CD ICs were successfully synthesized by the co-precipitation method, and hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions played a key role in the formation of ICs, and the isopropyl of 4-TA entered the cavity through the wide rim of β-CD. Moreover, the release profile demonstrated that high RH (85 % and 99 %) triggered the release of TA from ICs. This study suggests the great potential of cyclodextrin inclusion strategy for improving the stability and sustained release of 4-TA in food preservation application.

Effects of improver on the quality of frozen Chinese sweet rice wine dough: Water status, protein structure and flavor properties

In the study, a sweet wine koji (YQ-5) was successfully selected to make frozen Chinese sweet rice wine dough (F-CD) for flavor enrichment. Subsequently, the effects of single improver (SI: xanthan gum, potassium carbonate, antifreeze protein, diacetyl tartaric esters of monoglycerides and composite improver (XPADG: Four improvers mixed in proportion) on the texture, rheological properties, microstructure, water status, protein secondary structure, volatile flavor substances and sensory properties of F-CD during frozen storage were investigated. The results indicated that XPADG slowed the increase in freezable water and water mobility in the dough, giving dough the most stable rheological properties and minimizing the damage of freezing to the secondary structure and microstructure of proteins. Besides, GC-QTOF/MS analysis showed that XPADG may facilitate the retention of flavoring substances in F-CD after storage for 6 days. Finally, the sensory evaluation showed that XPADG imparted good sensory properties to the product after freezing for 6 days.

Effects of steam explosion-modified rice bran dietary fiber on volatile flavor compounds retention and release of red date-flavored naan (ethnic specialty food of Xinjiang) during storage

This study explored the effects of steam explosion-modified rice bran dietary fiber (S-RBDF) on red date-flavored naan quality and flavor characteristics. The results revealed that the rheological properties of the dough were improved with the incremental addition of S-RBDF (0-5%). The microstructure revealed that adding an appropriate amount of S-RBDF (1-5%) enabled more starch granules to be embedded in the dough network. Notably, the addition of 5% S-RBDF resulted in naan with an optimum specific volume and texture, which consumers preferred. Additionally, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that adding S-RBDF to naan contributed to the retention and sustained release of pleasant volatile compounds (e.g. red date flavor, etc.), while inhibiting the development of unpleasant volatile compounds by delaying the oxidation and decomposition of lipids and preserving the antioxidant phenolic compounds, thus contributing to flavor maintenance of naan during storage. Overall, these results provided a foundation for developing high-quality flavored naan.

Multilayer microparticles for programmed sequential release of phenolic compounds from Eugenia stipitata: Stability and bioavailability

A co-delivery system based on multilayer microparticles was developed and characterized for the sequential release of phenolic compounds (PCs) using different encapsulation processes (spray drying: SD and drying-chilling spray: SDC) and wall materials to improve the stability and bioavailability of PCs. Samples were characterized in terms of process yield (PY%), phenolic retention efficiency (PRE%), chemical structure and crystallinity (NMR, FTIR, DXR), thermal stability (DSC and FT-IR), anti-radical capacity (ORAC and ABTS) and in vitro digestion. PRE% of samples by SD were higher (p < 0.05) than SDC due to the formation of PCs from CRF (cará-roxo flour). NMR, FTIR, DXR confirmed the presence of key components and interactions for the formation of the advanced co-delivery system. The SDC particles showed crystalline regions by XRD and were stable at ∼47 °C. All samples showed good release of PC in the intestinal phase, and antiradical capacity that reached 23.66 µmol TE g-1.

Lemongrass essential oil micro- and nanoencapsulation for industrial application: Production techniques and potential applications

Due to its characteristic aroma and diverse therapeutic properties, lemongrass essential oil (LEO) has garnered increased attention in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. However, LEO's volatile nature, low chemical stability, and limited solubility in water limits its applications in the industry. Micro- and nanoencapsulation technologies emerge as a promising solution to overcome these challenges. A systematic methodology involving keyword searches in databases was employed to gather relevant literature on LEO micro- and nanoencapsulation, providing an extensive overview of techniques, processes, encapsulating materials, and possible applications. Beyond established methods, emerging techniques were explored. This review highlights the critical role of encapsulation in enhancing the thermal and chemical stability, applicability, bioavailability, and controlled release of LEO.

Encapsulation of W/O/W Acerola Emulsion by Spray Drying: Optimization, Release Kinetics, and Storage Stability

Acerola (Malpighia emarginata DC.) is a sub-tropical and tropical fruit renowned for its high levels of vitamin C and phenolic compounds, which offer health benefits. This study aimed to optimize the spray drying process by determining the inlet and outlet temperatures using response surface methodology (RSM) with the central composite design. Additionally, it aimed to evaluate the release kinetics in the hydrophilic food simulation environment and the stability of the resulting powder under various storage temperatures. The RSM method determined the optimal inlet and outlet temperatures as 157 °C and 91 °C, respectively. High-accuracy prediction equations (R2 ≥ 0.88) were developed for moisture content (3.02%), process yield (91.15%), and the encapsulation yield of total polyphenol content (61.44%), total flavonoid content (37.42%), and vitamin C (27.19%), with a predicted monolayer moisture content below 4.01%, according to the BET equation. The powder exhibited good dissolution characteristics in the acidic hydrophilic food simulation environment and showed greater stability when stored at 10 °C for 30 days, compared to storage at 35 °C and 45 °C.

Enhancing the Retention and Oxidative Stability of Volatile Flavors: A Novel Approach Utilizing O/W Pickering Emulsions Based on Agri-Food Byproducts and Spray-Drying

Spray-drying is a commonly used method for producing powdered flavors, but the high temperatures involved often result in the loss of volatile molecules. To address this issue, our study focused on a novel approach: developing O/W Pickering emulsions with agri-food byproducts to encapsulate and protect D-limonene during spray-drying and storage. Emulsions formulated with lupin hull, lupin-byproduct (a water-insoluble protein-fiber byproduct derived from the production of lupin protein isolate), and camelina press-cake were subjected to spray-drying at 160 °C. The results revealed that these emulsions exhibited good stability against creaming. The characteristics of the dry emulsions (powders) were influenced by the concentration of byproducts. Quantitative analysis revealed that Pickering emulsions enhanced the retention of D-limonene during spray-drying, with the highest retention achieved using 3% lupin hull and 1% camelina press-cake. Notably, lupin-stabilized emulsions yielded powders with enhanced oxidative stability compared to those stabilized with camelina press-cake. Our findings highlight the potential of food-grade Pickering emulsions to improve the stability of volatile flavors during both processing and storage.

Application of encapsulated flavors in food products; opportunities and challenges

Flavors are considered among the most important components of food formulations since they can predominantly affect the consumer acceptance and satisfaction. However, most flavors are highly volatile and inherently sensitive to pH, light, thermal processes, and chemical reactions such as oxidation and hydrolysis. Encapsulation is used as an effective strategy for protecting flavors from environmental conditions and extending their shelf life. Moreover, release characteristics of flavors can be modified via application of appropriate carriers and wall materials. This review focuses on the use of encapsulated flavors in various food products. Various factors affecting flavor retention during encapsulation, flavor release mechanisms, profiles and kinetics are discussed. Finally, the challenges associated with the use of encapsulated flavors in food products (in situ) and to model systems (in vitro), their storage stability, product requirements and problems related to the market are presented.

Molecular dynamics simulation techniques and their application to aroma compounds/cyclodextrin inclusion complexes: A review

Homeostatic technologies play a crucial role in maintaining the quality and extending the service life of aroma compounds (ACs). Commercial cyclodextrins (CDs) are commonly used to form inclusion complexes (ICs) with ACs to enhance their solubility, stability, and morphology. The selection of suitable CDs and ACs is of paramount importance in this process. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations provide an in-depth understanding of the interactions between ACs and CDs, aiding researchers in optimising the properties and effects of ICs. This review offers a systematic discussion of the application of MD simulations in ACs/CDs ICs, covering the establishment of the simulation process, parameter selection, model evaluation, and various application cases, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, this review summarises the major achievements and challenges of this method while identifying areas that require further exploration. These findings may contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the formation and stabilization mechanisms of ACs/CDs ICs and offer guidance for the selection and computational characterisation of CDs in the AC steady state.

Application of Encapsulation Strategies for Probiotics: From Individual Loading to Co-Encapsulation

Consumers are increasingly showing a preference for foods whose nutritional and therapeutic value has been enhanced. Probiotics are live microorganisms, and their existence is associated with a number of positive effects in humans, as there are many and well-documented studies related to gut microbiota balance, the regulation of the immune system, and the maintenance of the intestinal mucosal barrier. Hence, probiotics are widely preferred by consumers, causing an increase in the corresponding food sector. As a consequence of this preference, food industries and those involved in food production are strongly interested in the occurrence of probiotics in food, as they have proven beneficial effects on human health when they exist in appropriate quantities. Encapsulation technology is a promising technique that aims to preserve probiotics by integrating them with other materials in order to ensure and improve their effectiveness. Encapsulated probiotics also show increased stability and survival in various stages related to their processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit. This review focuses on the applications of encapsulation technology in probiotics in sustainable food production, including controlled release mechanisms and encapsulation techniques.

Advances in Designing Essential Oil Nanoformulations: An Integrative Approach to Mathematical Modeling with Potential Application in Food Preservation

Preservation of foods, along with health and safety issues, is a growing concern in the current generation. Essential oils have emerged as a natural means for the long-term protection of foods along with the maintenance of their qualities. Direct applications of essential oils have posed various constraints to the food system and also have limitations in application; hence, encapsulation of essential oils into biopolymers has been recognized as a cutting-edge technology to overcome these challenges. This article presents and evaluates the strategies for the development of encapsulated essential oils on the basis of fascination with the modeling and shuffling of various biopolymers, surfactants, and co-surfactants, along with the utilization of different fabrication processes. Artificial intelligence and machine learning have enabled the preparation of different nanoemulsion formulations, synthesis strategies, stability, and release kinetics of essential oils or their bioactive components from nanoemulsions with improved efficacy in food systems. Different mathematical models for the stability and delivery kinetics of essential oils in food systems have also been discussed. The article also explains the advanced application of modeling-based encapsulation strategies on the preservation of a variety of food commodities with their intended implication in food and agricultural industries.

Adsorption and controlled release performances of flavor compounds by rice bran insoluble dietary fiber improved through steam explosion method

In this study, steam explosion was employed as a modification process for rice bran insoluble dietary fiber (RBIDF) to improve the flavor adsorption and controlled release capacities of RBIDF. Results showed that the flavor adsorption ability of RBIDF was effectively improved due to the unfolding structure, increased specific surface area and pore volume and exposure of more functional groups after steam explosion treatment. The mechanism of the flavor adsorption behavior of modified RBIDF was preliminarily explored using adsorption kinetics and isotherms combined with SEM and DSC analysis. Results showed that the Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model yielded the best fit to the adsorption data, indicating monolayer adsorption of flavor onto the modified RBIDF, and the adsorption was mainly driven by chemisorption process. The flavor release profile of modified RBIDF was investigated by HS-SPME/GC-MS and E-nose. After long-time storage, the flavor compounds were retained at a higher concentration in the modified RBIDF compared with the untreated RBIDF, indicating that the steam explosion treatment prolonged the retention time and enhanced the retention and controlled release capacities of RBIDF for flavor compounds. This study provides indications for potential applications of steam explosion-modified RBIDF as a novel flavor delivery system and functional ingredient.

Time-Series Sensory Analysis Provided Important TI Parameters for Masking the Beany Flavor of Soymilk

The aim of this study is to provide a new perspective on the development of masking agents by examining the application of their time-series sensory profiles. The analysis of the relationship between 14 time-intensity (TI) parameters and the beany flavor masking ability of 100 flavoring materials indicate that the values of AreaInc, DurDec, and AreaDec, TI parameters related to the flavor release in the increasing and decreasing phases, were significantly higher in the top 10 masking score materials than in the bottom 10 materials. In addition to individual analysis, machine learning analysis, which can derive complex rules from large amounts of data, was performed. Machine learning-based principal component analysis and cluster analysis of the flavoring materials presented AreaInc and AreaDec as TI parameters contributing to the classification of flavor materials and their masking ability. AreaDec was suggested to be particularly important for the beany flavor masking in the two different analyses: an effective masking can be achieved by focusing on the TI profiles of flavor materials. This study proposed that time-series profiles, which are mainly used for the understanding of the sensory characteristics of foods, can be applied to the development of masking agents.

Nanocoating of lactic acid bacteria: properties, protection mechanisms, and future trends

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a type of probiotic that may benefit intestinal health. Recent advances in nanoencapsulation provide an effective strategy to protect them from harsh conditions via surface functionalization coating techniques. Herein, the categories and features of applicable encapsulation methods are compared to highlight the significant role of nanoencapsulation. Commonly used food-grade biopolymers (polysaccharides and protein) and nanomaterials (nanocellulose and starch nanoparticles) are summarized along with their characteristics and advances to demonstrate enhanced combination effects in LAB co-encapsulation. Nanocoating for LAB provides an integrity dense or smooth layer attributed to the cross-linking and assembly of the protectant. The synergism of multiple chemical forces allows for the formation of subtle coatings, including electrostatic attractions, hydrophobic interactions, π-π, and metallic bonds. Multilayer shells have stable physical transition properties that could increase the space between the probiotic cells and the outer environment, thus delaying the microcapsules burst time in the gut. Probiotic delivery stability can be promoted by enhancing the thickness of the encapsulated layer and nanoparticle binding. Maintenance of benefits and minimization of nanotoxicity are desirable, and green synthesized nanoparticles are emerging. Future trends include optimized formulation, especially using biocompatible materials, protein or plant-based materials, and material modification.

Application of functionalized chitosan in food: A review

Environmental and sustainability issues have received increasing attention in recent years. As a natural biopolymer, chitosan has been developed as a sustainable alternative to traditional chemicals such as food preservation, food processing, food packaging, and food additives due to its abundant functional groups and excellent biological functions. This review analyzes and summarizes the unique properties of chitosan, with a particular focus on the mechanism of action for its antibacterial and antioxidant properties. This provides a lot of information for the preparation and application of chitosan-based antibacterial and antioxidant composites. In addition, chitosan is modified by physical, chemical and biological modifications to obtain a variety of functionalized chitosan-based materials. The modification not only improves the physicochemical properties of chitosan, but also enables it to have different functions and effects, showing promising applications in multifunctional fields such as food processing, food packaging, and food ingredients. In the current review, applications, challenges, and future perspectives of functionalized chitosan in food will be discussed.

A decade of developing applications exploiting the properties of polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules

Transferring the layer-by-layer (LbL) coating approach from planar surfaces to spherical templates and subsequently dissolving these templates leads to the fabrication of polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules. The versatility of the coatings of capsules and their flexibility upon bringing in virtually any material into the coatings has quickly drawn substantial attention. Here, we provide an overview of the main developments in this field, highlighting the trends in the last decade. In the beginning, various methods of encapsulation and release are discussed followed by a broad range of applications, which were developed and explored. We also outline the current trends, where the range of applications is continuing to grow, including addition of whole new and different application areas.

Flavour encapsulation: A comparative analysis of relevant techniques, physiochemical characterisation, stability, and food applications

Flavour is an important component that impacts the quality and acceptability of new functional foods. However, most flavour substances are low molecular mass volatile compounds, and direct handling and control during processing and storage are made difficult due to susceptibility to evaporation, and poor stability in the presence of air, light, moisture and heat. Encapsulation in the form of micro and nano technology has been used to address this challenge, thereby promoting easier handling during processing and storage. Improved stability is achieved by trapping the active or core flavour substances in matrices that are referred to as wall or carrier materials. The latter serve as physical barriers that protect the flavour substances, and the interactions between carrier materials and flavour substances has been the focus of many studies. Moreover, recent evidence also suggests that enhanced bioavailability of flavour substances and their targeted delivery can be achieved by nanoencapsulation compared to microencapsulation due to smaller particle or droplet sizes. The objective of this paper is to review several relevant aspects of physical-mechanical and physicochemical techniques employed to stabilize flavour substances by encapsulation. A comparative analysis of the physiochemical characterization of encapsulates (particle size, surface morphology and rheology) and the main factors that impact the stability of encapsulated flavour substances will also be presented. Food applications as well as opportunities for future research are also highlighted.

Engineering Emulsion Gels as Functional Colloids Emphasizing Food Applications: A Review

Gels are functional materials with well-defined structures (three-dimensional networks) assembled from the dispersed colloids, and capable of containing a large amount of water, oil, or air (by replacing the liquid within the gel pores), known as a hydrogel, oleogel, and aerogel, respectively. An emulsion gel is a gelled matrix filled with emulsion dispersion in which at least one phase, either continuous phase or dispersed phase forms spatial networks leading to the formation of a semisolid texture. Recently, the interest in the application of gels as functional colloids has attracted great attention in the food industry due to their tunable morphology and microstructure, promising physicochemical, mechanical, and functional properties, and superior stability, as well as controlled release, features for the encapsulated bioactive compounds. This article covers recent research progress on functional colloids (emulsion gels), including their fabrication, classification (protein-, polysaccharide-, and mixed emulsion gels), and properties specifically those related to the gel-body interactions (texture perception, digestion, and absorption), and industrial applications. The emerging applications, including encapsulation and controlled release, texture design and modification, fat replacement, and probiotics delivery are summarized. A summary of future perspectives to promote emulsion gels' use as functional colloids and delivery systems for scouting potential new applications in the food industry is also proposed. Emulsion gels are promising colloids being used to tailor breakdown behavior and sensory perception of food, as well as for the processing, transportation, and targeted release of food additives, functional ingredients, and bioactive substances with flexibility in designing structural and functional parameters.