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Klak K, Maciuszek M, Pijanowski L, Marcinkowska M, Homa J, Verburg-van Kemenade BML, Rakus K, Chadzinska M. Evolutionarily conserved mechanisms regulating stress-induced neutrophil redistribution in fish. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1330995. [PMID: 38515741 PMCID: PMC10954836 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1330995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Stress may pose a serious challenge to immune homeostasis. Stress however also may prepare the immune system for challenges such as wounding or infection, which are likely to happen during a fight or flight stress response. Methods In common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) we studied the stress-induced redistribution of neutrophils into circulation, and the expression of genes encoding CXC chemokines known to be involved in the regulation of neutrophil retention (CXCL12) and redistribution (CXCL8), and their receptors (CXCR4 and CXCR1-2, respectively) in blood leukocytes and in the fish hematopoietic organ - the head kidney. The potential involvement of CXC receptors and stress hormone receptors in stress-induced neutrophil redistribution was determined by an in vivo study with selective CXCR inhibitors and antagonists of the receptors involved in stress regulation: glucocorticoid/mineralocorticoid receptors (GRs/MRs), adrenergic receptors (ADRs) and the melanocortin 2 receptor (MC2R). Results The stress-induced increase of blood neutrophils was accompanied by a neutrophil decrease in the hematopoietic organs. This increase was cortisol-induced and GR-dependent. Moreover, stress upregulated the expression of genes encoding CXCL12 and CXCL8 chemokines, their receptors, and the receptor for granulocytes colony-stimulation factor (GCSFR) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9). Blocking of the CXCR4 and CXCR1 and 2 receptors with selective inhibitors inhibited the stress-induced neutrophil redistribution and affected the expression of genes encoding CXC chemokines and CXCRs as well as GCSFR and MMP9. Discussion Our data demonstrate that acute stress leads to the mobilization of the immune system, characterized by neutrophilia. CXC chemokines and CXC receptors are involved in this stress-induced redistribution of neutrophils from the hematopoietic tissue into the peripheral blood. This phenomenon is directly regulated by interactions between cortisol and the GR/MR. Considering the pivotal importance of neutrophilic granulocytes in the first line of defense, this knowledge is important for aquaculture, but will also contribute to the mechanisms involved in the stress-induced perturbation in neutrophil redistribution as often observed in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Klak
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Maciuszek
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Lukasz Pijanowski
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Marcinkowska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Homa
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Krzysztof Rakus
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Chadzinska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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Ardeshir RA, Rastgar S, Salati AP, Zabihi E, Movahedinia A, Feizi F. The effect of nonylphenol exposure on the stimulation of melanomacrophage centers, estrogen and testosterone level, and ERα gene expression in goldfish. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 254:109270. [PMID: 35026400 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2022.109270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study tried to measure the formation of melanomacrophage centers (MMCs) in various organs of male and female goldfish exposed to nonylphenol (NP) and aimed to assess its relationship with the main sexual hormones, estrogen receptor expression, and the pigment content of the MMCs. Immature goldfish were exposed to 10-6 and 10-7 M NP for 25 days. After obtaining blood for measuring testosterone and estrogen (E2) levels, tissue samples were collected from various organs for histological studies, quantifying pigments using ImageJ software and chemical analysis, and measuring ERα gene expression. Results showed that the order of forming MMCs in various organs exposed to NP was liver > spleen > kidney, and the order of ERα gene expression was liver > testes > spleen > kidney in the male, and liver > spleen > kidney > ovaries in the female. Among the three pigments present in MMCs after exposure to the two doses of NP, melanin was more obvious (especially in the liver) and increased mostly in a dose-dependent manner in both sexes (especially in the male). Chemical analyses confirmed these results. Measurement of testosterone and E2 level in male and female goldfish showed that NP had more effect on the concentration of these hormones in male fish, indicating more endocrine-disrupting potential of NP against the male fish. Generally, the increase of melanin content of melanomacrophage centers coincided with the increase of ERα gene expression and decrease of testosterone level in goldfish after exposure to NP.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sara Rastgar
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Khorramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, P.O. Box 669, Khorramshahr, Iran
| | - Amir Parviz Salati
- Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Marine Natural Resources, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, P.O. Box 669, Khorramshahr, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Zabihi
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Abdolali Movahedinia
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran.
| | - Farideh Feizi
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
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Moreira C, Paiola M, Duflot A, Varó I, Sitjà-Bobadilla A, Knigge T, Pinto P, Monsinjon T. The influence of 17β-oestradiol on lymphopoiesis and immune system ontogenesis in juvenile sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 118:104011. [PMID: 33460678 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The female sex steroid 17β-oestradiol (E2) is involved in the regulation of numerous physiological functions, including the immune system development and performance. The role of oestrogens during ontogenesis is, however, not well studied. In rodents and fish, thymus maturation appears to be oestrogen-dependent. Nevertheless, little is known about the function of oestrogen in immune system development. To further the understanding of the role of oestrogens in fish immune system ontogenesis, fingerlings of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were exposed for 30 days to 20 ng E2·L-1, at two ages tightly related to thymic maturation, i.e., 60 or 90 days post hatch (dph). The expression of nuclear and membrane oestrogen receptors was measured in the thymus and spleen, and the expression of several T cell-related gene markers was studied in both immune organs, as well as in the liver. Waterborne E2-exposure at 20.2 ± 2.1 (S.E.) ng·L-1 was confirmed by radioimmunoassay, leading to significantly higher E2-contents in the liver of exposed fish. The majority of gene markers presented age-dependent dynamics in at least one of the organs, confirming thymus maturation, but also suggesting a critical ontogenetic window for the implementation of liver resident γδ and αβ T cells. The oestrogen receptors, however, remained unchanged over the age and treatment comparisons with the exception of esr2b, which was modulated by E2 in the younger cohort and increased its expression with age in the thymus of the older cohort, as did the membrane oestrogen receptor gpera. These results confirm that oestrogen-signalling is involved in thymus maturation in European sea bass, as it is in mammals. This suggests that esr2b and gpera play key roles during thymus ontogenesis, particularly during medulla maturation. In contrast, the spleen expressed low or non-detectable levels of oestrogen receptors. The E2-exposure decreased the expression of tcrγ in the liver in the cohort exposed from 93 to 122 dph, but not the expression of any other immune-related gene analysed. These results indicate that the proliferation/migration of these innate-like T cell populations is oestrogen-sensitive. In regard to the apparent prominent role of oestrogen-signalling in the late thymus maturation stage, the thymic differentiation of the corresponding subpopulations of T cells might be regulated by oestrogen. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the dynamics of both nuclear and membrane oestrogen receptors in specific immune organs in a teleost fish at very early stages of immune system development as well as to examine thymic function in sea bass after an exposure to E2 during ontogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Moreira
- UMR-I 02 Environmental Stress and Aquatic Biomonitoring (SEBIO), University of Le Havre Normandy, F-76600, Le Havre, France
| | - Matthieu Paiola
- UMR-I 02 Environmental Stress and Aquatic Biomonitoring (SEBIO), University of Le Havre Normandy, F-76600, Le Havre, France; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, 14642, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Aurélie Duflot
- UMR-I 02 Environmental Stress and Aquatic Biomonitoring (SEBIO), University of Le Havre Normandy, F-76600, Le Havre, France
| | - Inma Varó
- Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de La Sal, CSIC, 12595, Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
| | | | - Thomas Knigge
- UMR-I 02 Environmental Stress and Aquatic Biomonitoring (SEBIO), University of Le Havre Normandy, F-76600, Le Havre, France
| | - Patrícia Pinto
- Centro de Ciências Do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade Do Algarve, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Tiphaine Monsinjon
- UMR-I 02 Environmental Stress and Aquatic Biomonitoring (SEBIO), University of Le Havre Normandy, F-76600, Le Havre, France.
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Campbell JH, Dixon B, Whitehouse LM. The intersection of stress, sex and immunity in fishes. Immunogenetics 2021; 73:111-129. [PMID: 33426582 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-020-01194-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
While sexual dimorphism in immune responses has been documented in other vertebrates, evidence for a similar phenomenon in fish is lacking. Here, we review the relationship between immunity, stress, spawning, and sex hormones in fish to gain a better understanding of sex-based differences in fish immune responses and its consequences for aquaculture. It is well known that there is a strong link between the stress response and immune function in fish. In addition, research to date has demonstrated that sexual dimorphism in the stress response exists in many species; yet, the relationship between the sexual dimorphic stress responses and immune function has rarely been explored together. Aside from stress, spawning is also known to trigger changes in fish immune responses. Estrogens and androgens have been shown to modulate the immune system which could account for differences between the two sexes of fish when spawning; however, evidence regarding the sexual dimorphism of these changes varies between fishes and is likely related to the spawning strategy employed by a given species. Sex hormones are also used in aquaculture practices to produce monosex populations, and exposure to these hormones early in development has been shown to impact the development of immune organs in several fishes. While female fish are generally thought to be more robust than males, aquaculture practices should also consider the role that maternal stress has on the immune function of the offspring and what role this plays in compromising the immune response of farmed fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Campbell
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, USA
| | - Brian Dixon
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, USA.
| | - Lindy M Whitehouse
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, USA
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Maciuszek M, Pijanowski L, Pekala-Safinska A, Kemenade BMLVV, Chadzinska M. 17β-Estradiol affects the innate immune response in common carp. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2020; 46:1775-1794. [PMID: 32519008 PMCID: PMC7427712 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-020-00827-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation is the evolutionary conserved immune response to harmful stimuli such as pathogens or damaged cells. This multistep process acts by removing injurious stimuli and initiating the healing process. Therefore, it must be tightly regulated by cytokines, chemokines, and enzymes, as well as neuroendocrine mediators. In the present work, we studied the immunoregulatory properties of 17β-estradiol (E2) in common carp. We determined the in vitro effects of E2 on the activity/polarization of macrophages and the in vivo effects during Aeromonas salmonicida-induced inflammation. In vitro, E2 reduced the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediator genes but did not change the gene expression of the estrogen receptors and of aromatase CYP19. In contrast, in vivo in the head kidney of A. salmonicida-infected fish, E2-treated feeding induced an upregulation of gene expression of pro-inflammatory (il-12p35 and cxcb2) and anti-inflammatory (arginase 1, arginase 2, il-10, and mmp9) mediators. Moreover, in infected fish fed with E2-treated food, a higher gene expression of the estrogen receptors and of the aromatase CYP19 was found. Our results demonstrate that estrogens can modulate the carp innate immune response, though the in vitro and in vivo effects of this hormone are contrasting. This implies that estradiol not only induces a direct effect on macrophages but rather exerts immunomodulatory actions through indirect mechanisms involving other cellular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Maciuszek
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, PL30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Lukasz Pijanowski
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, PL30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Pekala-Safinska
- Department of Fish Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, PL24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | | | - Magdalena Chadzinska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, PL30-387, Krakow, Poland.
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Rastgar S, Alijani Ardeshir R, Zabihi E, Movahedinia A, Salati AP. Immunotoxicity of estrogen and nonylphenol on apoptosis and expression of ERs in goldfish macrophage: Opening new avenue for discovering the role of experimental model systems and sexes. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2019; 209:159-167. [PMID: 30780113 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) and their roles in important cell processes such as apoptosis in the macrophages exposed to estrogen/xenoestrogen have remained a complex secret. This study focused on the expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) and the stimulation of apoptosis in the macrophages from the two sexes of goldfish (Carassius auratus) exposed to 17-βestradiol (E2) and nonylphenol (NP) under in vivo and in vitro conditions. For the in vivo experiment, fish were exposed to NP (10-6 M and 10-7 M) and E2 (10-6 M) for 24 days. Then, the head kidney macrophages from the male and the female goldfish were isolated and assayed. For the in vitro experiments, the macrophages derived from the two sexes were cultured in L-15 medium and exposed to E2 (150 nM) and NP (10 nM and 150 nM) for 3 days. The results showed that the three isoforms of ERs (ERα, ERβ1, ERβ2) were expressed in the goldfish macrophages. After the exposure of macrophages to NP and E2, sex-specific increase of ERs expression and apoptosis were observed (P < 0.05). The expression of ERα after NP treatment showed the highest alteration, with the response being concentration-dependent. The most alteration of ERs expression were observed in the in vivo experiment. This study provides insight to understand how exposure of the goldfish macrophages to E2 and NP can up-regulate the transcript levels of estrogen receptor subtypes and stimulate apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Rastgar
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Khorramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, P.O. Box 669, Khorramshahr, Iran
| | - Rashid Alijani Ardeshir
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Khorramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, P.O. Box 669, Khorramshahr, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Zabihi
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Abdolali Movahedinia
- Department of Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran
| | - Amir Parviz Salati
- Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Marine Natural resources, Khorramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, P.O. Box 669, Khorramshahr, Iran.
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Cabas I, Chaves-Pozo E, Mulero V, García-Ayala A. Role of estrogens in fish immunity with special emphasis on GPER1. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 89:102-110. [PMID: 30092317 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
It is well accepted that estrogens, the primary female sex hormones, play a key role in modulating different aspects of the immune response. Moreover, estrogens have been linked with the sexual dimorphism observed in some immune disorders, such as chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Nevertheless, their effects are often controversial and depend on several factors, such as the pool of estrogen receptors (ERs) involved in the response. Their classical mode of action is through nuclear ERs, which act as transcription factors, promoting the regulation of target genes. However, it has long been noted that some of the estrogen-mediated effects cannot be explained by these classical receptors, since they are rapid and mediated by non-genomic signaling pathways. Hence, the interest in membrane ERs, especially in G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER1), has grown in recent years. Although the presence of nuclear ERs, and ER signaling, in immune cells in mammals and fish has been well documented, information on membrane ERs is much scarcer. In this context, the present manuscript aims to review our knowledge concerning the effect of estrogens on fish immunity, with special emphasis on GPER1. For example, the numerous tools developed over recent years allowed us to report for the first time that the regulation of fish granulocyte functions by estrogens through GPER1 predates the split of fish and tetrapods more than 450 million years ago, pointing to the relevance of estrogens as modulators of the immune responses, and the pivotal role of GPER1 in immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Cabas
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain.
| | - Elena Chaves-Pozo
- Centro Oceanográfico de Murcia, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), Murcia, Spain
| | - Victoriano Mulero
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Alfonsa García-Ayala
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
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Casanova-Nakayama A, Wernicke von Siebenthal E, Kropf C, Oldenberg E, Segner H. Immune-Specific Expression and Estrogenic Regulation of the Four Estrogen Receptor Isoforms in Female Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19040932. [PMID: 29561790 PMCID: PMC5979597 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19040932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic actions of estrogens in vertebrates are exerted via two intracellular estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, ERα and ERβ, which show cell- and tissue-specific expression profiles. Mammalian immune cells express ERs and are responsive to estrogens. More recently, evidence became available that ERs are also present in the immune organs and cells of teleost fish, suggesting that the immunomodulatory function of estrogens has been conserved throughout vertebrate evolution. For a better understanding of the sensitivity and the responsiveness of the fish immune system to estrogens, more insight is needed on the abundance of ERs in the fish immune system, the cellular ratios of the ER subtypes, and their autoregulation by estrogens. Consequently, the aims of the present study were (i) to determine the absolute mRNA copy numbers of the four ER isoforms in the immune organs and cells of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, and to compare them to the hepatic ER numbers; (ii) to analyse the ER mRNA isoform ratios in the immune system; and, (iii) finally, to examine the alterations of immune ER mRNA expression levels in sexually immature trout exposed to 17β-estradiol (E2), as well as the alterations of immune ER mRNA expression levels in sexually mature trout during the reproductive cycle. All four ER isoforms were present in immune organs—head kidney, spleen-and immune cells from head kidney and blood of rainbow trout, but their mRNA levels were substantially lower than in the liver. The ER isoform ratios were tissue- and cell-specific, both within the immune system, but also between the immune system and the liver. Short-term administration of E2 to juvenile female trout altered the ER mRNA levels in the liver, but the ERs of the immune organs and cells were not responsive. Changes of ER gene transcript numbers in immune organs and cells occurred during the reproductive cycle of mature female trout, but the changes in the immune ER profiles differed from those in the liver and gonads. The correlation between ER gene transcript numbers and serum E2 concentrations was only moderate to low. In conclusion, the low mRNA numbers of nuclear ER in the trout immune system, together with their limited estrogen-responsiveness, suggest that the known estrogen actions on trout immunity may be not primarily mediated through genomic actions, but may involve other mechanisms, such as non-genomic pathways or indirect effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayako Casanova-Nakayama
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Elena Wernicke von Siebenthal
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Christian Kropf
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Elisabeth Oldenberg
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Helmut Segner
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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Effects of Sex Steroids on Fish Leukocytes. BIOLOGY 2018; 7:biology7010009. [PMID: 29315244 PMCID: PMC5872035 DOI: 10.3390/biology7010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Revised: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In vertebrates, in addition to their classically reproductive functions, steroids regulate the immune system. This action is possible mainly due to the presence of steroid receptors in the different immune cell types. Much evidence suggests that the immune system of fish is vulnerable to xenosteroids, which are ubiquitous in the aquatic environment. In vivo and in vitro assays have amply demonstrated that oestrogens interfere with both the innate and the adaptive immune system of fish by regulating the main leukocyte activities and transcriptional genes. They activate nuclear oestrogen receptors and/or G-protein coupled oestrogen receptor. Less understood is the role of androgens in the immune system, mainly due to the complexity of the transcriptional regulation of androgen receptors in fish. The aim of this manuscript is to review our present knowledge concerning the effect of sex steroid hormones and the presence of their receptors on fish leukocytes, taking into consideration that the studies performed vary as regard the fish species, doses, exposure protocols and hormones used. Moreover, we also include evidence of the probable role of progestins in the regulation of the immune system of fish.
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