Current status of endoluminal bariatric procedures for primary and revision indications

Endoscopic therapy of weight regain after bariatric surgery

Weight regain following primary bariatric surgery occurs in a significant proportion of patients and is attributed to epidemiological, anatomical and metabolic factors. Surgical revision of these patients has significant risks and limited benefits. Endoscopic revisions that reduce gastric pouch size and diameter of the gastrojejunal anastomosis may offer an effective, safe, less invasive and even reproducible treatment. We herein discuss the indication, selection and feasibility of different endoscopic techniques that could be used in the management of weight regain following primary bariatric surgery. Future research could optimize a personalized approach not only in the endoscopic management but also in combination with other therapeutic modalities for weight regain after bariatric surgery.

The Effect of Bariatric Surgery and Endoscopic Procedures on Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Obesity is a global epidemic posing a significant burden on patients and healthcare systems. Gastroesophageal reflux disease is associated with obesity and its prevalence is also growing worldwide. Numerous bariatric surgeries and endoscopic procedures have arisen to assist with weight loss and management of obesity-related conditions. However, the effect of these interventions on reflux is variable and the evidence is often conflicting. To date, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass remains the gold-standard for attaining both reflux and weight loss management, however novel endoscopic techniques are quickly becoming more prevalent as an alternative to surgery. This review aims to summarize currently available endoscopic and surgical weight loss procedures and their impact on reflux symptoms while emphasizing areas requiring additional investigation.

Endoscopic Gastric Plication for Morbid Obesity: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Published Data over Time

Endoscopic gastric plication or gastroplasty for morbid obesity is gaining worldwide recognition. Data concerning safety and efficacy are rather scarce. Furthermore, clear guidelines are yet to be established. The objective of this meta-analysis is to update the data and investigate the efficacy and safety of the procedure. An online comprehensive search using Cochrane, Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase on endoscopic gastric plication was completed. The primary outcome was defined as weight loss at 6 months or more after the procedure. Secondary outcomes were defined as the occurrence of adverse events or complications including insufficient weight loss or regain. I² statistic was used to define the heterogeneity across studies. Twenty-two cohort studies on 7 different devices met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 2475 patients. The mean baseline BMI was 37.8 ± 4.1 kg/m² (median 37.9; range 28.0-60.2). Either a transoral endoluminal stapling or (suction based) (full-thickness) stitching and/or anchor device was used to obtain gastric volume reduction and/or alter gastric outlet. The mean follow-up was 13 months (median 12; range 6-24) for the specified outcomes of each study. Two active, FDA-approved devices were taken into account for meta-analysis: Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty (ESG) and the primary obesity surgery endolumenal (POSE™). Average pooled %EWL at 6 months (p = 0.02) and 12 months (p = 0.04) in favor of ESG was 57.9 ± 3.8% (50.5-65.5, I² = 0.0), 44.4 ± 2.1% (40.2-48.5, I² = 0.0), and 68.3 ± 3.8% (60.9-75.7, I² = 5.8), 44.9 ± 2.1% (40.9-49.0, I² = N/A) for ESG and POSE respectively. Major adverse events without mortality were described in 25 patients (9 studies, p = 0.63). ESG and POSE are both safe and feasible procedures with good short-term weight loss. ESG seems to be superior in terms of weight loss at this point. Few major adverse events are reported and long-term results are awaited.

Endoscopic management of weight regain following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

INTRODUCTION

With the cumulative increase in the number of patients undergoing bariatric surgery, postoperative weight regain has become a considerable challenge. Mechanisms for weight regain are not fully understood and the process is likely multifactorial in many cases. Endoluminal revisions that reduce gastric pouch size and diameter of the gastrojejunal anastomosis may offer an effective and less invasive management strategy for this population.

AREAS COVERED

We critically review data from case series, retrospective and prospective studies, and meta-analyses pertaining to weight regain after gastric bypass. A variety of endoscopic revision approaches are reviewed, including technique details, procedural safety and efficacy, and post-procedure care.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

Given the proliferation of endoluminal therapies with evidence showing safety and efficacy in the treatment of weight regain, it is likely that endoscopic revision will be the gold standard to treat weight regain in patients with gastric bypass.

The Impact of Intragastric Balloons on Obesity-Related Co-Morbidities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

ObjectivesTherapies less invasive than surgery and more effective than lifestyle and pharmacotherapy are needed to contend with the obesity epidemic. Intragastric balloons (IGBs) are a minimally invasive endoscopic weight loss method recently approved for use in the US. The purpose of the study is to assess the effect of IGBs on metabolic outcomes associated with obesity.MethodsMEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Database were searched through July 2016. Dual extraction and quality assessment of studies using Cochrane risk of bias tool were performed independently by two authors. Primary outcomes included the change from baseline in metabolic parameters. Secondary outcomes included resolution and/or improvement in metabolic co-morbidities and association with baseline parameters.Results10 randomized controlled trials (RCT) and 30 observational studies including 5,668 subjects were analyzed. There was moderate-quality evidence for improvement in most metabolic parameters in subjects assigned to IGB therapy as compared to conventional non-surgical therapy in RCTs: mean difference (MD) in fasting glucose change: -12.7 mg/dl (95% confidence interval (CI) -21.5, -4); MD in triglycerides: -19 mg/dl (95% CI -42, 3.5); MD in waist circumference: -4.1 cm (95% CI -6.9, -1.4); MD in diastolic blood pressure: -2.9 mm Hg (95% CI -4.1, -1.8). The odds ratio for diabetes resolution after IGB therapy was 1.4 (95% CI 1.3, 1.6). The rate of serious adverse events was 1.3%.ConclusionsIGBs are more effective than diet in improving obesity-related metabolic risk factors with a low rate of adverse effects, however the strength of the evidence is limited given the small number of participants and lack of long-term follow-up.

Validation of a new method for the endoscopic measurement of post-bariatric gastric outlet using a standard guidewire: an observer agreement study

Background and aims

Between 10 and 20% of all patients undergoing bariatric surgery procedures regain weight secondary to a gastrojejunostomy enlargement. The aim of this study was to validate the interobserver agreement while measuring gastric outlet diameters using a new standard guidewire.

Methods

We selected thirty-five videos of consecutive endoscopic procedures on patients undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy after a Roux-en-Y gastric bypass procedure. All videos were evaluated by four raters: two expert endoscopists and two trainees. We excluded videos having a slipped Fobi ring or a strictured gastric outlet. Anastomosis diameter was measured using a novel device with standardized markings on a guidewire (Hydra jagwire, Boston Scientific, Natick. MA) as well as the current gold standard defined as a calibrated endoscopic measuring instrument (Olympus America, Center Valley, PA).

Results

We obtained 272 measurements of the gastric outlet. Overall agreement measured through intra-class correlation coefficients for the gold standard was 0.84 (p < 0.01) and 0.83 (p < 0.01) for the new guidewire. Agreement among experts was 0.699 (p < 0.01), while among trainees it was 0.822 (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

The new guidewire demonstrated a high degree of observer reliability, also presenting similar results between expert endoscopists and trainees.

Endoscopic Management

Endoscopic bariatric therapy consists of devices or procedures for primary weight loss or weight regain after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass that are placed or done endoscopically. In most cases, they result in less weight loss, but fewer complications than bariatric surgery; and more weight loss than lifestyle therapy or weight loss medications. These therapies are important advances to treat patients with obesity. This article focuses on therapies or devices with US Food and Drug Administration approval or those with current or planned US pivotal trials.

Recent Trends in Endoscopic Management of Obesity

Obesity remains a tremendous public health, clinical, and scientific challenge globally. Conventional approaches in the management of obesity offer limited potential for sustained weight loss. Bariatric surgery, although it represents the most effective weight loss treatment, has its own risks and is associated with substantial costs and limited patient applicability. Endoscopic weight loss procedures are considered as the major breakthrough in the management of obesity. Endoluminal interventions performed entirely through the gastrointestinal tract have evolved as a result of an attempt to replicate some of the anatomical features and the physiological effects of the traditional weight loss surgery while being reversible, less invasive, and more cost-effective. Restrictive procedures act to decrease gastric volume by space-occupying devices and/or by suturing or stapling techniques that alter gastric anatomy, whereas malabsorptive procedures tend to create malabsorption by preventing food contact with the duodenum and proximal jejunum. Other procedures act by influencing gastric function (gastric botulinum injections, gastric pacing, and vagal nerve blocking) or by gastric aspiration. It is important to underline that the majority of endoscopic weight loss procedures are still being evaluated and are not yet available routinely. Even though some of the techniques and devices that have recently emerged have demonstrated promising short-term results, evidence on their safety and long-term efficacy from well-designed and well-conducted research should be given before they can become an inherent part of everyday clinical practice. Given the rapid development of endoscopic weight loss procedures, this review considers the current state and recent trends in endoscopic management of obesity.

Effect of Intragastric Balloons on Liver Enzymes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Intragastric balloons (IGBs) are safe and effective in inducing weight loss in obese patients. The objective of this study was to review and analyze the available data of the effect of IGB on markers of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and liver enzymes.

METHODS

Searches were performed of MEDLINE and Embase databases from inception through January 2016. Study inclusion criteria were the following: ≥5 overweight or obese adult patients undergoing intragastric balloon placement, with liver tests [alanine aminotransferase (ALT) or gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT)] or markers of NAFLD (e.g., imaging, biopsy) reported before balloon insertion and after balloon removal at 6 months.

RESULTS

Nine observational studies and one randomized trial were identified. ALT decreased by -10.02 U/l (95 % CI, -13.2, -6.8), GGT decreased by -9.82 U/l (95 % CI, -12.9, -6.8), and BMI decreased by -4.98 kg/m(2) (-5.6, -4.4) with IGB therapy. Hepatic steatosis improved from baseline after 6 months of balloon therapy by magnetic resonance imaging (fat fraction, 16.7 ± 10.9-7.6 ± 9.8, p = 0.003), ultrasound (severe liver steatosis, 52-4 %, p < 0.0001). Histological NAFLD activity score was lower after 6 months of IGB versus control with sham endoscopy and diet (2 ± 0.75 vs. 4 ± 2.25, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The use of intragastric balloon decreases liver enzymes and is potentially an effective short-term treatment for NAFLD as part of a multidisciplinary approach. Larger, more rigorous trials are needed to confirm the effect of IGBs on NAFLD.

Is Endoluminal Bariatric Therapy a New Paradigm of Treatment for Obesity?

The prevalence of obesity has steadily increased throughout recent decades, and along with it, the costs of caring for the associated comorbid conditions has increased as well. Traditional bariatric surgical procedures generally are safe and effective, but patient acceptance, the risk of minor and sometimes serious complications, costs, and insurance coverage have limited the application of these techniques to the treatment of a minority of patients. Endoluminal techniques represent newer approaches to weight loss that can be used independently or in concert with traditional medical and surgical treatments for obesity, with varying degrees of success. It is anticipated that less invasiveness will increase the appeal across a broader representation of patients, perhaps increasing the number of obese patients who choose an intervention over medical management and possibly resulting in a greater total loss of excess body weight across a population; this may reduce costs involved in treating the complications of weight-related comorbidities. Acceptance of endoluminal bariatric procedures and devices will hinge on proving safety, efficacy, and value.

ENDOSCOPIC SLEEVE GASTROPLASTY - MINIMALLY INVASIVE THERAPY FOR PRIMARY OBESITY TREATMENT

Background

Less invasive and complex procedures have been developed to treat obesity. The successful use of Endoscopic Sleeve Gastroplasty using OverStitch(r) (Apollo Endosurgery, Austin, Texas, USA) has been reported in the literature.

Aim

Present technical details of the procedure and its surgical/ endoscopic preliminary outcome.

Method

The device was used to perform plications along the greater curvature of the stomach, creating a tubulization similar to a sleeve gastrectomy.

Result

A male patient with a BMI of 35.17 kg/m2 underwent the procedure, with successful achievement of four plications, and preservation of gastric fundus. The procedure was successfully performed in 50 minutes, time without bleeding or other complications. The patient presented mild abdominal pain and good acceptance of liquid diet.

Conclusions

The endoscopic gastroplasty procedure was safe, with acceptable technical viability, short in duration and without early complications.

Endoscopic management of bariatric surgery complications: what the gastroenterologist should know

Obesity is a serious disorder in almost the entire world. It is an important risk factor for a series of conditions that affect and threaten health. Currently, bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment for morbid obesity, and in addition to the resulting weight loss, it reduces morbidity in this population. There has been a significant increase in the number of obese patients operated on. Despite the success of bariatric surgery, an important group of patients still present with major postoperative complications. In order for endoscopy to effectively contribute to the diagnosis and treatment of complications deriving from obesity surgery, the gastroenterologist must be aware of the particularities involved in bariatric surgery. The present article is a review of the resulting anatomic aspects of the main surgical techniques employed, the most common postoperative symptoms, the potential complications, and the possibilities that endoscopic diagnosis and treatment offer. Endoscopy is a growing and continuously evolving method in the treatment of bariatric surgery complications. The aim of this review is to contribute to the preparation of gastroenterologists so they can offer adequate endoscopic diagnosis and treatment to this high-risk population.

Treatment of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: The Role of Medical, Surgical, and Endoscopic Weight Loss

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a rapidly growing cause of chronic liver disease in the United States and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, including progression to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. NAFLD comprises a spectrum of liver conditions, ranging from simple steatosis to steatosis with inflammation (steatohepatitis) and progressive fibrosis. Weight loss represents a first line therapeutic modality for the management of NAFLD. Herein, we review the evidence base for medical, surgical, and endoscopic approaches to weight loss and their potential impact on the natural history of NAFLD.

One-year human experience with a novel endoluminal, endoscopic gastric bypass sleeve for morbid obesity

INTRODUCTION

Here, we report the first series of patients with 1-year implantation of a novel, endoluminal, endoscopically delivered and retrieved gastro-duodeno-jejunal bypass sleeve (GJBS) (ValenTx, Inc. Carpinteria, CA, USA). In this report, we present the safety, feasibility of the device, weight loss, and changes in comorbidities.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A prospective, single-center, 12-month trial was designed. The patients are morbidly obese individuals who meet the NIH criteria for bariatric surgery. The GJBS is a 120-cm sleeve secured at the esophago-gastric junction with endoscopic and laparoscopic techniques that is designed to create an endoluminal gastro-duodeno-jejunal bypass. The device was implanted and, at the completion of the trial, retrieved with an endoscopic technique. The primary endpoints were safety and incidence of adverse events. The secondary outcomes included the percentage of excess weight loss (EWL) and changes in comorbidities, specifically glucose control, use of antihyperglycemics, and changes in hemoglobin A1C levels.

RESULTS

From July 2009 until October 2009, 13 patients were prospectively enrolled for the 1-year trial. The study included five men and eight women with a mean preoperative BMI of 42 kg/m(2). One patient was excluded, at the time of endoscopic evaluation, due to inflammation at the GE junction. Two additional patients required early explantation of the device, within the first 4 weeks, due to patient intolerance. Upon explant of the device, both patients' symptoms improved. In the remaining ten patients, the device was implanted, left in situ for 12 months, and then retrieved endoscopically. Safe delivery of the cuff at the gastro-esophageal junction was seen in all ten patients whom had device implants, without complication. No esophageal leak was seen immediately post-procedure or during follow-up. The sleeve device was well tolerated within the bowel lumen during the 12-month study, specifically, no bowel erosions, ulceration, or pancreatitis was observed. All ten patients reached the 1-year mark. Of the ten, six had fully attached and functional devices throughout the follow-up, verified by endoscopy. The mean percentage EWL, at 1 year, in this group was 54 %. In the remaining four patients, partial cuff detachment was observed at follow-up endoscopy. The percentage EWL was lower in this group. Of the six patients that reached a year with a fully attached device, five were followed at an average of 14-months post-explant (26 months from the time of device implant). These five maintained an average percentage EWL of 30 % at the 14-month post-explant follow-up. Co-morbidites measured included diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and use of antihyperglycemics. Each of the measured comorbidities showed improvement during the 12-month trial.

DISCUSSION

The endoluminal, GJBS can be safely placed and retrieved. The short-term data show it is well tolerated with a good safety profile. It achieves excellent weight loss results with over 70 % of all comorbidities resolved or significantly improved.

Comparison of a superficial suturing device with a full-thickness suturing device for transoral outlet reduction (with videos)

BACKGROUND

Larger gastrojejunal (GJ) anastomosis aperture is one independent predictor for weight regain after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Transoral outlet reduction (TORe) has proven safe and effective for treatment of weight regain by using a superficial-thickness (ST) suturing device. Full-thickness (FT) suturing devices are now available, potentially providing more effective results.

OBJECTIVE

To compare effectiveness of superficial-thickness with full-thickness TORe.

DESIGN

Matched cohort study: patients were matched sequentially by GJ anastomosis aperture, body mass index, and age.

SETTING

Tertiary-care center.

PATIENTS

A total of 59 consecutive patients undergoing full-thickness TORe were matched with 59 patients undergoing superficial-thickness TORe. All had GJ anastomosis apertures >20 mm.

INTERVENTION

Transoral outlet reduction.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Weight loss and rate of adverse events.

RESULTS

Post-TORe GJ anastomosis apertures were similar between groups (ST 6.9 ± 0.2 mm vs FT 7.1 ± 0.3 mm). Weight loss was greater at 6 months in the FT group (10.6 ± 1.8 kg in FT vs 4.4 ± 0.8 kg in ST; P < .01) and at 1 year (8.6 ± 2.5 kg in FT vs 2.9 ± 1.0 kg in ST; P < .01). Excess weight loss was greater in the FT group at 6 months (20.4 ± 3.3% in FT vs 8.1 ± 2.5% in ST; P < .01) and at 1 year (18.9 ± 5.4% in FT vs 9.1 ± 2.3% in ST; P = .03).

LIMITATIONS

This was a single-center, retrospective, cohort study.

CONCLUSION

There is level 1b evidence for effectiveness of TORe by using a superficial mucosal suturing device. This matched cohort study compared TORe by using the same ST suturing device with TORe by using a newer, FT suturing device and the same operative methods. FT TORe resulted in significantly more weight loss than ST TORe at 6 months and at 1 year. Full-thickness TORe is a significant improvement over ST TORe for endoscopic therapy of weight regain in patients with dilated GJ anastomosis.

The economic impact of weight regain

Background. Obesity is well known for being associated with significant economic repercussions. Bariatric surgery is the only evidence-based solution to this problem as well as a cost-effective method of addressing the concern. Numerous authors have calculated the cost effectiveness and cost savings of bariatric surgery; however, to date the economic impact of weight regain as a component of overall cost has not been addressed. Methods. The literature search was conducted to elucidate the direct costs of obesity and primary bariatric surgery, the rate of weight recidivism and surgical revision, and any costs therein. Results. The quoted cost of obesity in Canada was $2.0 billion-$6.7 billion in 2013 CAD. The median percentage of bariatric procedures that fail due to weight gain or insufficient weight loss is 20% (average: 21.1% ± 10.1%, range: 5.2-39, n = 10). Revision of primary surgeries on average ranges from 2.5% to 18.4%, and depending on the procedure accounts for an additional cost between $14,000 and $50,000 USD per patient. Discussion. There was a significant deficit of the literature pertaining to the cost of revision surgery as compared with primary bariatric surgery. As such, the cycle of weight recidivism and bariatric revisions has not as of yet been introduced into any previous cost analysis of bariatric surgery.

Endoscopic management of complications after gastrointestinal weight loss surgery

As more patients undergo bariatric surgery, gastroenterologists will increasingly encounter variant postsurgical anatomies and postoperative complications. We discuss the diagnosis and management of bleeding, ulcers, foreign bodies, stenoses, leaks, fistulas, pancreaticobiliary diseases, weight regain, and dilated outlets.

Outcomes of revisional procedures for insufficient weight loss or weight regain after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

BACKGROUND

The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) performed laparoscopically (LRYGB) is the most frequently performed bariatric procedure in Belgium. However, late results in terms of weight loss or weight regain are inconsistent and may warrant a second procedure. This retrospective study analyzes the laparoscopic options for revisional surgery after LRYGB.

METHODS

Between January 1, 2001 and December 31, 2009, 70 patients underwent a new laparoscopic procedure for poor weight loss or weight regain after LRYGB. The revisional procedure was performed a median of 2.6 years after the initial bypass operation. Fifty-eight patients were available for follow-up (82.9 %); 19 underwent distalization; and 39 a new restrictive procedure.

RESULTS

The mean mass index (BMI) before the revisional procedure was 39.1 + 11.3 kg/m(2) (30.8-51.8), down from 42.7 + 19.7 kg/m(2) (33.0-56.6) initially, which corresponded to a percentage of excess weight loss (EWL) of 12.4 + 9.3 % (-1.0-29.1). After the corrective procedure, with a follow-up of approximately 4 years, mean BMI was 29.6 + 12.4 kg/m(2) (18.0-45.5), for a significant additional percentage of EWL of 53.7 + 9.8 % (2.0-65.8). The overall complication rate was 20.7 %, and the reoperation rate was 7.3 %. The overall leak rate was 12.1 %. Patients suffering from leaks could consistently be treated conservatively or by stent placement. Two patients needed reconversion after distal bypass. The satisfaction index was good in just over 50 % of the patients.

CONCLUSION

Revisional laparoscopic surgery after RYGB performed for weight issues provides good additional weight loss but carries significant morbidity. Leaks can usually be handled non-surgically. Patient satisfaction is only fair.

Endoscopic therapy for postoperative leaks and fistulae

Endoscopic techniques for the treatment of postoperative fistulae and leaks are rapidly developing. Conventional surgical therapy for postsurgical leaks and fistulae is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Novel endoscopic therapies have demonstrated safety, despite the inherent challenges of intervention in this patient population, and are steadily building evidence for efficacy relative to surgical management. The article examines endoscopic therapy for leaks and fistulae after esophageal, gastric, bariatric, colonic, and pancreaticobiliary surgery.

Endoscopic sclerotherapy for the treatment of weight regain after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: outcomes, complications, and predictors of response in 575 procedures

BACKGROUND

Weight regain after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is common. Endoscopic sclerotherapy is increasingly used to treat this weight regain.

OBJECTIVES

To report safety, outcomes, durability, and predictors of response to sclerotherapy in a large prospective cohort.

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of a prospective cohort study of patients with weight regain after RYGB.

PATIENTS

A total of 231 consecutive patients undergoing 575 sclerotherapy procedures between September 2008 and March 2011.

INTERVENTIONS

Single or multiple sclerotherapy procedures to inject sodium morrhuate into the rim of the gastrojejunal anastomosis.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

We report weight loss, complications, and predictors of response. We also used Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and log-rank test to compare time to continuation of weight regain after sclerotherapy in patients undergoing a single versus multiple sclerotherapy procedures.

RESULTS

At 6 and 12 months from the last sclerotherapy procedure, weight regain stabilized in 92% and 78% of the cohort, respectively. Those who underwent 2 or 3 sclerotherapy sessions had significantly higher rates of weight regain stabilization than those who underwent a single session (90% vs 60% at 12 months; P = .003). The average weight loss at 6 months from the last sclerotherapy session for the entire cohort was 10 lb (standard deviation 16), representing 18% of the weight regained after RYGB. A subset of 73 patients (32% of the cohort) had greater weight loss at 6 months (26 lb, standard deviation 12), representing 61% of the weight regained. Predictors of a favorable outcome included greater weight regain and the number of sclerotherapy procedures. Bleeding was reported in 2.4% of procedures and transient diastolic blood pressure increases in 15%, without adverse health outcomes. No GI perforations were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic sclerotherapy appears to be a safe and effective tool for the management of weight regain after RYGB.

Endoscopic approaches to obesity

Given the emerging role of endoscopic procedures in the treatment of obesity and rapid changes in endoscopic technologies and techniques, this review considers the current state of endoscopic management of obesity. Endoluminal interventions performed entirely through the GI tract by using flexible endoscopy offer the potential for an ambulatory weight loss procedure that may be safer and more cost- effective compared with current surgical approaches. Endoscopic techniques attempt to mimic the anatomic features of bariatric surgery. Accordingly, there are two main endoscopic weight loss modalities - restrictive and malabsorptive. Restrictive procedures act to decrease gastric volume by space-occupying prosthesis and/or by suturing or stapling devices, while malabsorptive procedures tend to create malabsorption by preventing food contact with the duodenum and proximal jejunum. The former include intragastric balloon treatment, endoluminal vertical gastroplasty, transoral gastroplasty and transoral endoscopic restrictive implant system, while the latter include duodenojejunal bypass sleeve. Gastroduodenojejunal bypass sleeve is a combination of both procedures. Except for intragastric balloon, all mentioned procedures are rather new, tested on a small number of human subjects, with a high rate of success, but with limited knowledge on safety and long-term efficacy. The role of gastric electrical stimulation and intragastric injections of botulinum toxin in obesity treatment is also considered as is the role of minimally invasive bariatric endoscopic interventions.