Design and synthesis of coumarin-triazole hybrids: biocompatible anti-diabetic agents, in silico molecular docking and ADME screening

Ligand and structure-based virtual screening approaches in drug discovery: minireview

The compilation of ligand and structure-based molecular modeling methods has become an important practice in virtual screening applied to drug discovery. This systematic review addresses and ranks various virtual screening strategies to drive the selection of the optimal method for studies that have as their starting point a multi-ligand investigation and investigation based on the protein structure of a therapeutic target. This study shows examples of applications and an evaluation based on the objective and problematic of a series of virtual screening studies present in the ScienceDirect® database. The results showed that the molecular docking technique is widely used in scientific production, indicating that approaches that use protein structure as a starting point are the most promising strategy for drug discovery that relies on virtual screening-based research.

In silico approaches to identify novel anti-diabetic type 2 agents against dipeptidyl peptidase IV from isoxazole derivatives of usnic acid

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a serious worldwide health issue in the twenty-first century. Additionally, DM, a metabolic endocrine illness that affects the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, has a death rate of 4.9 million individuals globally. This study aims to find anti-diabetic inhibitor for type 2 diabetes (T2D) that inhibits the dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) enzyme using in silico methods. From a range of published literature sources, thirty (30) isoxazole derivatives of UA (IDUA) were selected for this study. To ascertain the possible inhibitory effects of IDUA, ADMET, molecular docking, density functional theory analyses, molecular dynamic simulation and MM/PBSA were conducted. Eleven compounds (1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 13, 18, 21, 22, 24, and 27) were selected from the ADMET study, which were subjected to perform molecular docking against the DPP-IV enzyme of T2D, and findings indicated two compounds (compound 2 and compound 3) showed comparable binding affinity with the reference compound "Linagliptin". In contrast to the reference molecule, which had a binding affinity of - 8.6 kcal/mol against DPP-IV, compound 2 and compound 3 have binding affinities of - 8.1 and - 8.0 kcal/mol, respectively. Furthermore, based on Lipinski's Rule of Five, ELUMO, EHOMO, band energy gap, drug-likeness and DFT-based studies demonstrated druggability and high reactivity for these compounds. In addition, the molecular dynamic (MD) techniques to confirm that docked complexes remained stable and that the binding orientation obtained during docking tests were accurate. These compounds may be investigated in vitro and in vivo for the development of potential DPP-IV of T2D inhibitors.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-025-04287-5.

DNA and hemoglobin binding activities: Investigation of coumarin-thiosemicarbazone hybrids

Coumarin and coumarin-thiosemicarbazone hybrids were synthesized and characterized by various techniques such as FT-IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, MALDI-TOF-MS spectroscopy, and single crystal X-Ray diffractometer (XRD). The photochemical and photophysical properties of the compounds, such as solvatochromism, solubility, and chemical reactivity, were analyzed using UV-vis spectroscopy in different solvents. Due to the potential biological activities of the synthesized compounds, their binding affinity and mechanisms with calf thymus DNA (ct-DNA) and bovine hemoglobin (BHb) were determined using several useful spectrophotometric and theoretical approaches such as UV-vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, molecular docking, and density functional theory (DFT). The experimental results showed that the compounds exhibited strong binding interactions with DNA and BHb. Additionally, the compounds demonstrated predominantly binding modes, such as intercalation and groove binding with DNA and π-π stacking interactions with BHb.To better understand the thermodynamics of these interactions, quenching constants, binding constants, and Gibbs free energy changes (ΔG°) were calculated. Molecular docking and DFT results supported the experimental data regarding the binding affinity and mechanisms of the compounds to DNA and BHb. Overall, this comprehensive study on coumarin and coumarin-thiosemicarbazone hybrids provides valuable insights into their interaction mechanisms with critical biomolecules, highlighting their potential in therapeutic applications as multifunctional agents.

An insight on medicinal attributes of 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole derivatives as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is the globe's common leading disease which is caused by high consumption of glucose. DM compiles groups of metabolic disorders which are characterized by inadequate secretion of insulin from pancreas, resulting in hyperglycemia condition. Many enzymes play a vital role in the metabolism of carbohydrate known as α-amylase and α-glucosidase which is calcium metalloenzyme that leads to breakdown of complex polysaccharides into glucose. To tackle this problem, search for newer antidiabetic drugs is the utmost need for the treatment and/or management of increasing diabetic burden. The inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase is one of the effective therapeutic approaches for the development of antidiabetic therapeutics. The exhaustive literature survey has shown the importance of medicinally privileged triazole specifically 1,2,3-triazol and 1,2,4-triazoles scaffold tethered, fused and/or clubbed with other heterocyclic rings structures as promising agents for designing and development of novel antidiabetic therapeutics. Molecular hybrids namely pyridazine-triazole, pyrazoline-triazole, benzothiazole-triazole, benzimidazole-triazole, curcumin-triazole, (bis)coumarin-triazole, acridine-9-carboxamide linked triazole, quinazolinone-triazole, xanthone-triazole, thiazolo-triazole, thiosemicarbazide-triazole, and indole clubbed-triazole are few examples which have shown promising antidiabetic activity by inhibiting α-amylase and/or α-glucosidase. The present review summarizes the structure-activity relationship (SAR), enzyme inhibitory activity including IC50 values, percentage inhibition, kinetic studies, molecular docking studies, and patents filed of the both scaffolds as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, which may be used for further development of potent inhibitors against both enzymes.

Pharmacological and phytochemical insights on the pancreatic β-cell modulation by Angelica L. roots

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Angelica roots are a significant source of traditional medicines for various cultures around the northern hemisphere, from indigenous communities in North America to Japan. Among its many applications, the roots are used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus; however, this application is not mentioned often. Ethnopharmacological studies have reported the use of A. japonica var. hirsutiflora, A. furcijuga, A. shikokiana, and A. keiskei to treat diabetes symptoms, and further reports have demonstrated the three angelica roots, i.e., A. japonica var. hirsutiflora, A. reflexa, and A. dahurica, exhibit insulin secretagogue activity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to phytochemically characterize and compare angelica roots monographed in the European Pharmacopeia 11th, isolate major plant metabolites, and assess extracts and isolates' capability to modulate pancreatic β-cell function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Root extracts of Angelica archangelica, Angelica dahurica, Angelica biserrata, and Angelica sinensis were phytochemically profiled using liquid chromatography method coupled with mass spectrometry. Based on this analysis, simple and furanocoumarins were isolated using chromatography techniques. Extracts (1.6-50 μg/mL) and isolated compounds (5-40 μmol/L) were studied for their ability to modulate insulin secretion in the rat insulinoma INS-1 pancreatic β-cell model. Insulin was quantified by the homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence method.

RESULTS

Forty-one secondary metabolites, mostly coumarins, were identified in angelica root extracts. A. archangelica, A. dahurica, and A. biserrata root extracts at concentration of 12.5-50 μg/mL potentiated glucose-induced insulin secretion, which correlated with their high coumarin content. Subsequently, 23 coumarins were isolated from these roots and screened using the same protocol. Coumarins substituted with the isoprenyl group were found to be responsible for the extracts' insulinotropic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Insulinotropic effects of three pharmacopeial angelica roots were found, the metabolite profiles and pharmacological activities of the roots were correlated, and key structures responsible for the modulation of pancreatic β-cell function were identified. These findings may have implications for the traditional use of angelica roots in treating diabetes. Active plant metabolites may also become lead structures in the search for new antidiabetic treatments.

Design, synthesis and docking studies of novel 4-aminophenol-1,2,4-oxadiazole hybrids as apoptosis inducers against triple negative breast cancer cells targeting MAP kinase

In our study, a series of novel 4-aminophenol benzamide-1,2,4-oxadiazole hybrid analogues have been designed and synthesized by condensing 4-hydroxyphenyl arylamides (3a-c) and 5-chloromethyl-3-aryl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles (6a-d). The structure of the synthesised compounds was verified by various spectroscopic techniques (1H NMR, 13C NMR, IR and LC-MS). All the prepared compounds were subjected to in silico and in vitro antiproliferative study against TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231. The investigations revealed that compound 7k significantly promoted apoptosis against MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231 cells with IC50 values of 22.31 µM and 26.27 µM, respectively. Compound 7k interacted with crucial active sites of MAPK and exhibited the highest docking score of -7.06 kcal/mol. Docking was validated with molecular dynamic studies with simulation for 100 ns, depicting various stable interactions with MAPK. Consequently, 7k forms stable H-Bonds and π-π stacking with amino acid residues along with π-cation. Our investigations reveal that the in vitro antiproliferative study of 7k was in good correlation with the in silico studies. Hence, 7k serves as a potential novel lead for the inhibition of TNBCs by downregulating MAPK P38.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Plant-Derived Coumarins: A Narrative Review of Their Structural and Biomedical Diversity

Plant-derived coumarin (PDC) is a naturally occurring heterocyclic backbone that belongs to the benzopyrone family. PDC and its based products are characterized by low toxicity and high distribution in a variety of herbal treatments that have numerous therapeutic potentials. These include anticoagulants, antibacterials, anti-inflammatory agents, anticancer agents, antioxidants, and others. So, it may be appropriate to investigate the qualities and potential bioactivities of PDCs. This article provides an overview of the biomedical potentials, availability, and clinical use possibilities of PDCs, with a focus on their important modes of action, using information on various pharmacological qualities discovered. The data used in this study came from published research between 2015 and 2023. We reviewed a selection of databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, during that period. In conclusion, because of their abundance in medicinal plants, the clinical biochemistry attributes of PDCs are currently of interest. In a variety of medical specialties, PDCs serve a useful role as therapeutic agents.

1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids Containing Isatins and Phenolic Moieties: Regioselective Synthesis and Molecular Docking Studies

The synthesis of hybrid molecules is one of the current strategies of drug discovery for the development of new lead compounds. The 1,2,3-triazole moiety represents an important building block in Medicinal Chemistry, extensively present in recent years. In this paper, we presented the design and the synthesis of new 1,2,3-triazole hybrids, containing both an isatine and a phenolic core. Firstly, the non-commercial azide and the alkyne synthons were prepared by different isatines and phenolic acids, respectively. Then, the highly regioselective synthesis of 1,4-disubstituted triazoles was obtained in excellent yields by a click chemistry approach, catalyzed by Cu(I). Finally, a molecular docking study was performed on the hybrid library, finding four different therapeutic targets. Among them, the most promising results were obtained on 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme involved in the inflammatory processes.

Recent Trends in the Synthesis and Bioactivity of Coumarin, Coumarin-Chalcone, and Coumarin-Triazole Molecular Hybrids

Molecular hybridization represents a new approach in drug discovery in which specific chromophores are strategically combined to create novel drugs with enhanced therapeutic effects. This innovative strategy leverages the strengths of individual chromophores to address complex biological challenges, synergize beneficial properties, optimize pharmacokinetics, and overcome limitations associated with single-agent therapies. Coumarins are documented to possess several bioactivities and have therefore been targeted for combination with other active moieties to create molecular hybrids. This review summarizes recent (2013-2023) trends in the synthesis of coumarins, as well as coumarin-chalcone and coumarin-triazole molecular hybrids. To cover the wide aspects of this area, we have included differently substituted coumarins, chalcones, 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazoles in this review and considered the point of fusion/attachment with coumarin to show the diversity of these hybrids. The reported syntheses mainly relied on well-established chemistry without the need for strict reaction conditions and usually produced high yields. Additionally, we discussed the bioactivities of the reported compounds, including antioxidative, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-cholinesterase activities and commented on their IC50 where possible. Promising bioactivity results have been obtained so far. It is noted that mechanistic studies are infrequently found in the published work, which was also mentioned in this review to give the reader a better understanding. This review aims to provide valuable information to enable further developments in this field.

Diosmin: A Daboia russelii venom PLA2s inhibitor- purified, and characterized from Oxalis corniculata L medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Oxalis corniculata L is a medicinal plant that belongs to the Oxalidaceae family. It is a little, slow-growing plant with a frail appearance typically found in mild temperate and tropical areas like Pakistan and India. This plant also includes many other bioactive substances, including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, phlobatannins, and steroids.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of Compound diosmin, which is derived from Oxalis corniculata L, on VRV-PL-5 and VRV-PL-8a isolated from Vipera russelli.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extraction, purification, and characterization of bioactive by TLC, HPTLC, FT-IR analysis, UV-Vis spectrophotometer, LC-MS/MS Analysis, NMR, XRD Analysis, In vitro evaluation, Circular dichroism spectroscopy, in vivo, and in silico studies.

RESULTS

In this study, the extract of Oxalis corniculata was evaluated for its in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effect against PLA2. The methanolic extract decreased hemolytic activity by about 60% at 1:75 w/w and neutralized the hemolytic activity completely at 1:100 w/w concentration. Diosmin inhibited VRV-PL-5 and VRV-PL-8a in a dose-dependent manner, with the extent of inhibition being about 56% for VRV-PL-5120 μM and VRV-PL-8a by 62% at the same concentration with IC50 concentrations of 87.08 μM for VRV-PL-5 and 82.08 μM for VRV-PL-8a, while at 75 μM. Diosmin inhibited the hemolytic activity of VRV-PL-5 by about 85%, and at the same concentration, VRV-PL-8a inhibited by about 75%. UV-CD spectra at the IC50 concentration of diosmin disrupted the secondary structure of VRV-PL-5 &VRV-PL-8a. In vivo, studies showed decreased myotoxicity and cardiotoxicity of the VRV-PL-5 &VRV-PL-8a, which was seen in the decrease in cytoplasmic markers LDH and CPK levels in the serum when incubated with diosmin. Furthermore, Histopathological studies of Muscles and lungs revealed that diosmin considerably protects against cellular abnormality caused by VRV-PL-5 & VRV-PL-8a. Molecular docking, MM/GBSA, and molecular dynamics simulation studies show that the diosmin is a potent inhibitor for VRV-PL-5 and VRV-PL-8a.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that diosmin is a potentially effective VRV-PL-5 and VRV-PL-8a.

Emerging Aspects of Triazole in Organic Synthesis: Exploring its Potential as a Gelator

Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC) - commonly known as the "click reaction" - serves as the most effective and highly reliable tool for facile construction of simple to complex designs at the molecular level. It relates to the formation of carbon heteroatomic systems by joining or clicking small molecular pieces together with the help of various organic reactions such as cycloaddition, conjugate addition, ring-opening, etc. Such dynamic strategy results in the generation of triazole and its derivatives from azides and alkynes with three nitrogen atoms in the five-membered aromatic azole ring that often forms gel-assembled structures having gelating properties. These scaffolds have led to prominent applications in designing advanced soft materials, 3D printing, ion sensing, drug delivery, photonics, separation, and purification. In this review, we mainly emphasize the different mechanistic aspects of triazole formation, which includes the synthesis of sugar-based and non-sugar-based triazoles, and their gel applications reported in the literature for the past ten years, as well as the upcoming scope in different branches of applied sciences.

Design and synthesis of 4-aminophenol-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivative potentiates apoptosis by targeting MAP kinase in triple negative breast cancer cells

Women below 40 years greatly suffer from triple negative breast cancers (TNBCs). Compared to other breast cancer cases, the poor prognosis and lower survival rate of TNBC patients make it an alarming task to save the human era from this dreadful disease. Therefore, identifying potential novel leads is urgently required to combat the TNBC. To discover a novel anticancer agent, we synthesized a series of novel 4-aminophenolbenzamide-1,3,4 oxadiazole hybrid analogues (7a-l). The structure of the compounds was confirmed by spectral methods (1H & 13C NMR, IR and MS). All the compounds were subjected to their in-silico and in-vitro antiproliferative studies against the TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231. The investigations revealed that 7i has significantly promoted apoptosis against MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231 cells with IC50 values of 16.89 and 19.43 µM, respectively. Molecular docking of 7i, with MAPK has exhibited the highest binding score of -7.10 kcal/mol by interacting with crucial amino acids present at the active sites. Molecular docking is further validated with molecular dynamic studies with simulation for 100 ns, depicting various stable interactions with MAPK. Compound 7i, forms stable H-bonds and π-π stacking with amino acid residues. Molecular dynamic simulation (MDS) reveals that hydrophobic and water bridges were very prominent for 7i to bind, with the amino acid residues in close proximity to the active site of p38 MAPK. The investigations show that the In-vitro antiproliferative study of 7i agreed with the in-silico studies. Collectively, our investigations depict 7i as a potent novel lead for the inhibition of TNBCs by targeting p38 MAPK.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

α-Amylase and mycobacterium-TB H37Rv antagonistic efficacy of novel pyrazole-coumarin hybrids: an in vitro and in silico investigation

The present investigation of minutiae to acquire structural information of the novel pyrazole-coumarin hybrids (PC1-PC10) synthesized using ultrasound methods and characterized using different spectroscopic techniques: mass, 1H-NMR, 13 C-NMR and IR spectroscopy, and theoretically explored using the DFT approach with a B3LYP/6-311G (d, p) basis set, and there in vitro, antagonistic efficacy against α-amylase and mycobacterium-TB H37Rv are described in this article. Pyrazole-coumarin hybrids (PC1-PC10) showed α-amylase inhibition ranging from IC50 (0.32-0.58 mM) when compared with acarbose (IC50 = 0.34 mM). Similarly, Mycobacterium-TB H37Rv strain inhibition screening showed MIC values ranging from 62.5 to 1000 µg/mL when compared with rifampicin and isoniazid MIC = 0.25 and 0.20 µg/mL, respectively. Molecular docking and MD simulation studies were performed to determine the active sites and rationalize the activities of the active compounds. To investigate the binding conformation and dynamics responsible for their activity, the three most active compounds (PC1, PC3 and PC6) were docked into the porcine pancreatic α-amylase active site (PDB ID:1OSE), and mycobacterium-TB H37Rv active site (PDB ID: 4TZK). The binding interactions between PC1, PC3, and PC6 with α-amylase were like those responsible for inhibiting α-amylase by acarbose. Also, the mycobacterium-TB H37Rv inhibiting responsible residues were compared with standard isoniazid and rifampicin.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A Review of Coumarins and Coumarin-Related Compounds for Their Potential Antidiabetic Effect

Background and aims:

Worldwide, type 2 diabetes mellitus accounts for a considerable burden of disease, with an estimated global cost of >800 billion USD annually. For this reason, the search for more effective and efficient therapeutic anti-diabetic agents is continuing. Coumarins are naturally derived and synthetic molecules with a wide variety of biological actions. The most common application of these molecules in medicine is for their thrombostatic activity. This study aims to give an overview of the current knowledge about the applicability of these chemical products in the therapeutic strategy against diabetes and its complications.

Methods:

For this purpose, we searched internet databases for publications and abstracts in English that investigated the effects of coumarins or coumarin-like agents with potential anti-diabetic activity.

Results:

The result is that a variety of these agents have proven in in vitro, in silico, and simple animal models to possess properties that may reduce the glucose absorption rate in the intestines, increase the level of insulin, increase the cellular uptake of glucose or reduce the gluconeogenesis. In addition, some of these agents also reduced the level of glycation of peptides in diabetic animal models and showed antioxidant properties.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, we can summarize that coumarins and their related derivatives may be potential antidiabetic agents. Useful formulations with appropriate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties must be developed and tested for their efficacy and toxicity in comprehensive animal models before they can enter clinical trials.

Research progress of coumarins and their derivatives in the treatment of diabetes

Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia caused by multiple causes, which is caused by insulin secretion and/or utilisation defects. It is characterised by increased fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels due to insulin deficiency or insulin resistance. It is reported that the harm of diabetes mainly comes from its complications, and the cardiovascular disease caused by diabetes is the primary cause of its harm. China has the largest number of diabetic patients in the world, and the prevention and control of diabetes are facing great challenges. In recent years, many kinds of literature have been published abroad, which have proved that coumarin and its derivatives are effective in the treatment of diabetic complications such as nephropathy and cardiovascular disease. In this paper, the types of antidiabetic drugs and the anti-diabetic mechanism of coumarins were reviewed.