Work–life balance in Asia: A systematic review

Gendered differences and strategies for work-life balance: Systematic review based on social ecological framework perspective

This paper systematically reviews gender-based work-life balance (WLB) studies conducted during pandemic times. It outlines potential problems and solutions for effectively managing work and non-work commitments. Using the Socio-ecological system theory, the study makes a significant contribution by identifying the root causes of gender disparities across four levels of inquiry: the micro, meso, exo, and macro system, based on themes that directly emerge from analysing the previous 109 articles published between till 2024. A conceptual framework is developed to understand various factors that explain why women are at high risk of experiencing gender disparity. However, we complement and populate the model with pioneering and insightful instances of gender inequalities from the literature to provide richer insights into gender-based WLB. Drawing from our research findings, we propose specific strategies to achieve WLB without reinforcing traditional gender roles. These strategies have practical implications for policymakers and human resources departments, providing them with a roadmap to design and implement work-life-friendly policies differentiated by gender to generate overall well-being.

Understanding marital stability through work-family experiences in proximal and distal contexts: Comparing United States and Japan

Objective

Guided by Gottman's framework of marital stability and the ecological theories, the present study aims to understand the relationships between work-family spillover and marital stability within two levels of context-the relational and social cultural contexts.

Background

The relational context of marriage is manifested by spousal relationships-spousal support and strain, which would moderate the relationship between work-family spillover and marital stability. Identified relationships also unfold within sociocultural contexts.

Method

This study uses data from the Midlife in the United States 2 (MIDUS 2) and Midlife in Japan (MIDJA) projects to explore these dynamics. The current study involved 500 Japanese and 1,800 American participants who were married and employed at the time of data collection.

Results

Results from multigroup path models revealed cultural differences. The relational context-spousal support and strain-played moderating roles in the associations between work-family spillover and marital stability in both countries. However, distinct sociocultural patterns emerged as spousal strain showed a stronger association among Japanese participants, whereas spousal support was more prominent among Americans in relation to marital stability.

Conclusion

The results support Gottman's contention that positive and negative features of marriage are related to marital stability directly and indirectly by shaping the impacts of work-family spillover and sociocultural expectations of work and family.

Implications

Practitioners and organizations should recognize the role of spouses in addressing the negative effects of work-family spillover in marriage, as well as incorporating clients' or employees' cultural backgrounds when addressing marital concerns.

Exploring workaholism determinants and life balance: A mixed-method study among academic nurse educators

BACKGROUND

Academic nurse educators play a crucial role in the educational environment, but the demands of their profession can lead to workaholism, which could result in an imbalance between work and personal life.

PURPOSE

The study aimed to explore workaholism and life balance among academic nursing educators, as well as investigate the factors associated with workaholism.

METHODS

A mixed-methods design based on the "concurrent triangulation" approach was employed. A convenience sample of 76 nurse educators completed the Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS) and the Life Balance Inventory (LBI), while a purposive sample of 20 nurse educators participated in semi-structured interviews. Inferential statistics and thematic analysis were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

The researchers found a notable prevalence of workaholism among nurse educators, with 59.0 % reporting a mean score above 2.5 and 86.8 % perceiving an unbalanced life. Regression analysis indicated that workaholism negatively predicted life balance (B = -0.404, p < 0.001). The qualitative findings derived three themes as determinants of workaholism: antecedents, consequences, personal and institutional strategies to mitigate workaholism among nursing educators.

CONCLUSION

Educational institutions should develop comprehensive approaches to support and develop their academicians, fostering a positive work environment, work-life balance, employee well-being, and professional development.

Work-life balance Twitter insights: A social media analysis before and after COVID-19 pandemic

This research examines the perceptions of Twitter users regarding the prevalent topics within Work-Life Balance communication before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The pressing questions surrounding current labour market drivers are addressed, particularly regarding the ongoing Fourth Industrial Revolution and the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on communicated themes, particularly in the Human Resource Management field, where Work-Life Balance has emerged as a key concept. Social media platforms like Twitter are pivotal in fostering discussions on Work-Life Balance in society. Over the past decade, Twitter has evolved into a significant research platform researchers utilise in more than ten thousand research articles. The online discourse on Twitter raises awareness of the importance of balancing work and personal life. The COVID-19 pandemic has unveiled new facets of Work-Life Balance, with social media as a key platform for discussing these issues. This research uses Social Media Analysis based on the Hashtag Research framework. A total of 1,768,628 tweets from 499,574 users were examined, and frequency, topic, and sentiment analysis were conducted. Pre-pandemic, the most communicated Work-Life Balance topics were performance and time management, while recruitment and employee development were identified post-pandemic. Pre-pandemic, the highest proportion of negative sentiment was time management and mental health prevention, shifting to time, employee development, and mental health prevention post-pandemic. Despite the limitations of our research, a proposed redefinition of the concept is also presented, including a design for an integrated Work-Life Balance model based on topics communicated by Twitter users. Given the need for a more robust approach to redefining the concept and developing an integrative Work-Life Balance model, the article provides fresh insights for future research.

Work-life integration among nurse educators: a meta-synthesis

Background

Work-life integration has been extensively researched in various contexts. Women dominate the nursing profession, but work-life integration is essential for men and women since both are expected to focus equally on their families and careers. The nursing faculty perceives nurse educators' work environment as undervalued, lacking support, and limited time to grow and carry the heavy workload.

Method

A qualitative meta-synthesis of studies between 2013 and 2023 was conducted using ScienceDirect, EBSCO Host, Sage and Sabinet databases. Seven articles related to the research phenomenon were retrieved.

Conclusion

The resulting themes revolved around two central aspects: nurse educators' work and life integration. Nurse educators face various challenges with work-life integration and often view their failure as a personal rather than a societal issue. However, as much as achieving work-life integration is personal, there is a call for employers in academic environments to improve workplace policies, like better-paid maternity leave, affordable quality childcare, and social support. Furthermore, nurse educators' line managers should display warmth and encouragement about personal challenges affecting nurse educators.

Prevalence and associated factors of burnout among working adults in Southeast Asia: results from a public health assessment

The COVID-19 pandemic has spotlighted the mental health crisis among employees worldwide. However, burnout research is often industry- or occupation-specific, and limited knowledge currently exists on the prevalence of burnout in the general working population of Southeast Asia. This study aims to examine the prevalence of employee burnout and its associated factors among working adults in Southeast Asia using secondary data. 4,338 full-time employees aged 18-65 years old living in Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, and Indonesia were assessed for burnout, depression, anxiety, stress, and sociodemographic characteristics as part of an online public health assessment in October 2022. The prevalence of burnout in the region was 62.91%. Burnout was highest among employees in the Philippines (70.71%) and lowest in Malaysia (58.13%). Experiencing burnout was associated with severe or extremely severe depression (AOR = 6.48 [95% CI = 5.06-8.33]), anxiety (AOR = 2.22 [1.74-2.85]), and stress (AOR = 5.51 [4.13-7.39]). Working more than 50 hours a week (AOR = 1.38 [1.04-1.82]) and being very dissatisfied with the job led to higher odds of burnout (AOR = 16.46 [8.99-30.53]). Alarmingly, more than half of working adults in the region are reporting increased levels of burnout, and improving employee mental health and work conditions may be key to improving employee burnout in the region. Findings contribute to existing research on burnout prevalence in the region and provide more comprehensive insights into understanding the factors driving employee burnout in the working population of Southeast Asia 2 years after the onset of the pandemic.

The relationship between nighttime exercise and problematic smartphone use before sleep and associated health issues: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Physical exercise has the potential to mitigate addictive behaviors and relevant health issues. However, the nighttime exercise has not been studied regarding this research topic. This study aims to explore the association between nocturnal physical exercise and problematic smartphone use before sleep, as well as related health issues.

METHODS

To explore the association between nighttime physical exercise and problematic smartphone use before sleep as well as related health issues, we conducted a cross-sectional survey among 1,334 college students. Their daily exercise behaviors (including timeframe, rationale, frequency, and duration), smartphone use before sleep, sleep quality, smartphone addiction, anxiety, and depression were measured by questionnaires. The associations were assessed using generalized linear models.

RESULTS

Our findings indicate that nearly 70% of participants chose to perform exercise at nighttime. Among these individuals who exercised at nighttime, the frequency and duration of nighttime exercise were significantly associated with decreased probabilities of smartphone use before sleep. Additionally, the frequency and duration of nighttime exercise were associated with lower levels of smartphone addiction and anxiety disorders.

CONCLUSION

Nighttime Exercise behaviors can effectively reduce sleep delays caused by problematic smartphone use before bedtime. These findings contribute to understanding the potential effects of nighttime exercise on problematic smartphone use and relevant health issues. Future research should employ more precise methodologies to examine these associations.

Low fertility and fertility policies in the Asia-Pacific region

Declining fertility is an increasing global trend. In many low fertility contexts, people are having fewer children then they want, and these unfulfilled fertility desires have been associated with wider socio-economic changes in education and labour force participation and conflicting and often contradictory expectations of women at home and at work. The right to determine if, when and how one has children is enshrined in international law yet many policies responses to low fertility fail to meet these standards. This paper summarizes why people in the Asia-Pacific region are having fewer children than they desire, and the range of policy responses, particularly those that make life easier for working parents. This raises two important points. First, we need to contend to the gender dynamics that underpin this in the region, despite gradual changes in women's roles, they are still seen as "caregivers" and undertake a disproportionate amount of unpaid care work, often having to lean-out of their employment, and/or face gender discrimination in the workplace. Second, the "emergency" of low fertility arises from complex social and economic conditions that cannot be solved by population policies solely focused on making babies.

When colleague got recognized: Third-party’s reaction to witnessing employee recognition

Employee recognition, an incentive method widely used in management practice, plays an important role in the organization. Although extant studies have confirmed its effectiveness, little attention has been paid to its spillover effect. Based on the Social Cognitive Theory and Affective Events Theory, this study argues that employee recognition encounter can trigger cognitive and behavioral reactions. Through perceived organizational justice and workplace wellbeing, a chain-mediating effect connects witnessing employee recognition to work engagement. This research adopts the empirical research method by asking the participants to do the weekly survey (four times in 1 month), and 258 samples are collected. Using SPSS20.0 and its PROCESS macro module, hypotheses are tested. The results indicate (1) employees who witness leaders’ recognition of colleagues will (a) perceive higher organizational justice and (b) be more engaged in work. (2) Perceived organizational justice will mediate the positive relationship between employee recognition encounters with (a) workplace wellbeing and (b) work engagement. (3) Perceived organizational justice and workplace wellbeing will have a chain-mediating effect in the path of employee recognition encounter and work engagement. The results provide both practical and theoretical contribution to employee recognition.

Exploring work-life balance among professional women in mainland China: A qualitative study

This article introduces a qualitative study utilizing semi-structured interviews to explore the barriers and resources of professional women to attain work-life balance (WLB) in the context of mainland China. Interviews were conducted with full-time employed women who had received higher education and possessed professional qualifications (N = 20). The findings reveal underlying factors in work and non-work domains which influence the achievement of work-life balance among Chinese professional women. Participants were found to perceive and attain their work-life balance differently according to their personal traits. The findings also highlight social and family support resources for Chinese professional women from the perspective of Confucianism. This study contributes to current knowledge on work and life issues through the lens of professional women's work-life balance perceptions and experiences in mainland China.

Mapping the Sustainable Human-Resource Challenges in Southeast Asia’s FinTech Sector

The significance of human resources (HRs) has increased with the increasing awareness of sustainability issues and corporate social responsibility. However, the rapidly emerging financial technology (FinTech) sector still presents an HR challenge. Southeast Asia, which accounts for the highest adoption rate of mobile banking, has set new records regarding the number of transactions, as well as funding amount, in recent years. Moreover, borderless financial cooperation, coupled with in-demand tech talents, will rapidly boost the development of the region. Thus, this study explored the new opportunities as well as challenges of a new business model, FinTech, in Southeast Asia’s banking and enterprise sector in the post-COVID-19 era. It also examined how organizations can achieve sustainable development via the interaction of the new operating model with existing ones by developing relevant strategies in the context of the “new normal” working condition. By reviewing the literature on HR management (HRM), we proposed how banking and FinTech companies could supply tech talent with the relevant experience or engage in training projects before recruiting. Additionally, since organizations desire sustainability-minded employees, they offer flexible working arrangements and well-established reward policies that can create remote work performance and retention rates. Being committed to upskilling and reskilling global talent by offering talent mobility opportunities across the organization, as well as by fully embracing the creation of value for cross-cultural talent, companies can support their employees’ long-term career goals and maintain competitive strength. Finally, organizations must focus more on flexible adjustments and cross-domain communication for global talent. Forming strategic alliances with FinTech companies would be an alternative conduit that can ensure that regional laws comply with the local culture and national law, for bias and conflict reduction.

Sustainable Leadership, Environmental Turbulence, Resilience, and Employees' Wellbeing in SMEs

Drawing on the conservation of resources theory and contingency theories of leadership, this study aims to investigate how sustainable leadership (SL) influences employees' wellbeing (WB) through employee resilience (ER) and to examine the moderating effect of environmental turbulence (ET) on the “sustainable leadership-employees' wellbeing” relationship. Data were collected from 593 employees and 373 supervisors adopting two-wave design among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in China. The authors used structural equation modeling to empirically test the hypothesized model in this study. The research shows that SL is significantly related to the employees' WB in SMEs. Regarding mediating effect, SL also indirectly influences employees' WB through ER. Moreover, the impact of SL on employees' WB becomes more prominent in the presence of lower ET. To the best of the authors' knowledge, no prior study is available about the integrated relationship of SL, ER, ET, and employee WB.

Effects of work-to-family enrichment on psychological distress and family satisfaction: A dyadic analysis in dual-earner parents

Resources that individuals acquire at work can have significant effects on their own well-being and family satisfaction, and on those of their closest family relations. Following the conservation of resources theory, this study examined the effects of work-to-family enrichment (WFE) on psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress) and family satisfaction (SWFaL) in different-gender dual-earner parents. The sample consisted of 473 couples - mother and father - from Temuco, Chile, who answered the Work-Family Interface scale, the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale, and the Satisfaction with Family Scale. The analysis was conducted using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM). Results showed that WFE was positively associated with SWFaL for both mothers and fathers (actor effects), whereas higher WFE was linked to lower psychological distress only in fathers. For mothers and fathers, psychological distress was negatively associated with their own (actor effects) and the other parent's SWFAL (partner effects). The mediating role of psychological distress was found only for fathers' WFE and their SWFaL. These results indicate that resources from work can increase family satisfaction for both fathers and mothers in dual-earner couples with adolescent children. However, in these couples, fathers acquire affective resources (positive mood) that reduce their own psychological distress, while mothers acquire skills (managing time at home more efficiently) that they invest directly in the family domain.

Stress in Balancing Work and Family among Working Parents in Hong Kong

Work-life imbalance might lead to detrimental outcomes, including family dissatisfaction, poor performance in the workplace, and poor mental and physical health. This population-based study aims to explore the situation and trends in regard to work-life balance among working men and women in 2017, with a special focus on the stress experienced in work and personal lives. Descriptive analysis and multiphase regression are used to explore the associations of work-life imbalance with individual and family factors. Males' satisfaction with the amount of time spent at work was most significantly related to the level of work-life stress. Both males' and females' satisfaction with work life, family life, and the amount of time spent at work and with family were all negatively related to the level of work-life stress. Participants who were not in marital or cohabiting status reported significantly higher levels of work-life stress. Participants who had childcare support reported higher levels of work-life stress than those who looked after their children by themselves or their partners. A similar pattern was found among participants involved in elderly care. This study provides insight into family policy that could promote balance in professional and personal life and relationships.

Influence of Border-Keepers' Support on Work-Family Enrichment of Preschool Teachers in China: The Mediating Role of Work-Family Boundary Flexibility

Based on work-family border theory and work-home resource theory (W-HR), this paper examines the impact of border keeper’s support (organizational support and family support) on work-family enrichment and whether or how work-family boundary flexibility mediates the relationship between border keeper’s support and work-family enrichment. A sample of 504 preschool teachers in Guangdong province, China completed questionnaires. The research results show a two-way process of work-family enrichment for preschool teachers in China. Organizational support was directly and significantly correlated with work-to-family enrichment (WFE), and family support was significantly and directly correlated with family-to-work enrichment (FWE). Organizational support had no significant positive predictive effect on work boundary flexibility which has a significant positive predictive effect on WFE. Family support had a significant positive predictive effect on family boundary flexibility which had a significant positive predictive effect on the FWE. In addition, the study found that family boundary flexibility mediates the relationships between family support and FWE whereas work boundary flexibility did not mediate the relationships between organizational support and WFE. The above research results are partly consistent with the existing research, and partly inconsistent, which is related to the profound influence of traditional culture in Chinese society and the current situation of preschool teachers in China. Such findings have important implications for improving the work-family enrichment of preschool teachers.

Relationships Between Work-to-Family Conflict and the Food Domain for Dual-Earner Parents With Adolescent Children

The impact of work-to-family conflict (WtoFC) can extend beyond family and work, and to other domains that contribute to well-being, such as the food domain. This study examined associations between WtoFC, perception of atmosphere of family meals (AFM), and satisfaction with food-related life (SWFoL) in dual-earner parents with adolescent children, and tested the mediating role of AFM between WtoFC and SWFoL. Questionnaires were administered to 473 different-sex dual-earner parents and one of their adolescent children (mean age 12.5 years, 51.4% male) in Temuco, Chile. Parents responded to a measure of work-to-family conflict; the three family members answered the Project-EAT Atmosphere of family meals scale, and the Satisfaction with Food-related Life Scale. Analyses were conducted using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model and structural equation modeling. Results showed a negative association from WtoFC to SWFoL in both parents, while a more positive perception of atmosphere of family meals was linked to higher SWFoL in the three family members. Moreover, WtoFC was negatively linked to SWFoL in parents, while only mothers' WtoFC had a negative association with their adolescent children's SWFoL. Policymakers and organizations can contribute to workers' and their families' food-related well-being by fostering policies and measures to reduce WtoFC.

Effect of Chief Executive Officer’s Sustainable Leadership Styles on Organization Members’ Psychological Well-Being and Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Situational leadership theory and the contingency approach of leadership were utilized and applied based on situational theory. Based on a total of four foundational theories, that is, bottom-up spillover theory, theories of prosocial behavior, and so on, this study empirically analyzed what influence a chief executive officer’s (CEO’s) sustainable leadership styles (servant, ethical, and authentic leadership) have on the psychological well-being and organizational citizenship behaviors of organization members. The study was conducted on adult employees of midsized or larger companies (including subsidiaries) across four countries: South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Africa. Data were obtained from 649 adult employees. SmartPLS was used to conduct structural equation modeling analysis of the data. The results were as follows: (1) CEOs’ servant and authentic leadership styles had statistically significant positive (+) effects on employees’ psychological well-being; however, ethical leadership did not. (2) CEOs’ ethical leadership had a statistically significant (+) effect on employees’ organizational citizenship behavior; however, servant and authentic leadership did not. (3) Employees’ psychological well-being had a statistically significant (+) effect on organizational citizenship behavior. CEOs are attracting more attention than ever, leading companies in today’s rapidly changing times. This suggests that it is necessary to comprehend principles that show when, where, and how important leaders are and sustainable leadership styles that can increase their chances of success. Moreover, this study derived constructive implications that a leader can overcome today’s challenges through sustainable leadership styles.

Exploration of the Socioecological Determinants of Hong Kong Workers' Work-Life Balance: A Grounded Theory Model

BACKGROUND

Although a growing body of research has investigated the theoretical and empirical models of work-life balance (WLB), the propositions of this phenomenon remain nonunified. Thus, a grounded theory approach was adopted to explore the viewpoints of workers regarding WLB and its determinants and consequences.

METHODS

Individual face-to-face interviews were conducted to investigate the attitudes and experiences of Hong Kong workers towards WLB, in which 50 workers were interviewed. All data of interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded into five levels of the socioecological framework (i.e., intrapersonal level, interpersonal level, organisational level, community and government policy).

RESULTS

The grounded theory model established that work-life balance and personal context mutually affected each other, and work-life balance was unidirectionally affected by the environmental context. The ability to maintain a continual satisfied physical and mental states among multiple roles under the emergence of unexpected environmental factors was proposed as the definition of work-life balance.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study offer essential research insights into the importance of WLB, the dynamic features for workers to sustain balance and constructing a reliable and exhaustive assessment model for work-life balance for future studies.

Work-family conflict and dangerous driving behaviours: The mediating role of affect

This study examined the under-studied relationship between work-family conflict and dangerous driving behaviours in a sample of employees, and job-related affect as a mediator of this relationship. The sample consisted of 476 Malaysian drivers (44.7% male; 55.3% female) aged 19-60 years. The participants completed scales measuring bidirectional work family conflict (work interference with family[ WIF]; family interference with work [FIW]), job-related negative affect, dangerous driving behaviours and socio-demographics. The data were analysed using structural equation modelling. Our findings indicate that dangerous driving was predicted by FIW, but not WIF. As predicted, job-related negative affect fully mediated the relationship between WIF and dangerous driving. Furthermore, the effect of FIW on dangerous driving behaviours was partially due to negative affect at work. Mediation path was conditional upon gender, suggesting the indirect effects of the relationship between FIW and dangerous driving behaviours via job affect occurs in males but not females. The findings of this study may be useful as a starting point for both applied and theoretical investigations of the role of the psychological effects of juggling work and family responsibilities and affect in traffic safety.

High involvement work practices often lead to burnout, but thanks to humble leadership

Purpose

Based on the conservation of resources theory, this study aims to investigate high involvement work practices (HIWP) as an antecedent to burnout with a mediating role of perceived work–family (WF) imbalance. Moreover, this study examines whether humble leadership moderates the relationship between HIWP and WF imbalance.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a time-lagged survey approach, data are collected from 200 employees working in the Indian services sector organizations.

Findings

The findings demonstrate that HIWP has a direct negative effect on burnout and an indirect effect via WF imbalance. Also, humble leadership moderates the relationship between HIWP and WF imbalance.

Originality/value

By studying the pessimistic view of HIWP in the Indian context, this study contributes to the scant studies available on its effect on burnout in collectivistic societies. Furthermore, humble leadership's moderating role in the relationship between HIWP and WF imbalance is unique to this study.

The Interplay of Socioecological Determinants of Work-Life Balance, Subjective Wellbeing and Employee Wellbeing

Today's workers are struggling to achieve a balance between their work and personal life roles because of both specific needs and limited resources. This study explored the socioecological factors that influence work-life balance (WLB) and how they operate. The relationships between WLB, subjective wellbeing, employee wellbeing and quality time allocation were examined. A total of 1063 responses were received, using an online survey. The results show that relational, community and societal factors directly influenced the individual factors and were indirectly associated with perceived WLB. Individual factors (i.e., personal feelings, behaviours and health) were found to be the crucial determinants of an individual's perceived WLB. It was found that WLB positively correlated with employee wellbeing and quality and quantity of personal life-time. Subjective wellbeing was found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between WLB and its outcomes. This study demonstrated the process of how workers determine their own WLB by applying the socioecological framework for categorising the determinants and suggested new avenues that improve the whole wellbeing of workers and also foster long-term development of organisations.

Relationship between Phobic Anxiety in Work and Leisure Activity Situations, and Optimistic Bias Associated with COVID-19 among South Koreans

Because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the public is unable to maintain a proper balance between work and leisure, and an increase in community-based infections is causing severe phobic anxiety. Therefore, the present study investigated the differences in phobic anxiety between work and leisure activities according to optimistic bias among 533 South Korean citizens. Frequency analysis, descriptive statistical analysis, t-tests, and a one-way analysis of variance were conducted to examine the data. The results showed that for leisure activities, women showed a higher perception of phobic anxiety. In addition, the group showing high optimistic bias had a higher perception of phobic anxiety in both work and leisure activity situations. Therefore, support measures to lower phobic anxiety among women are needed at the government level, while support and interest from family members are needed at home. Moreover, local governments must ensure active involvement to mitigate phobic anxiety among individuals, and measures are needed to more actively implement infectious disease prevention behaviors.