Cationic liposomes as potential carriers for ocular administration of peptides with anti-herpetic activity

The effect of charges on the corneal penetration of solid lipid nanoparticles loaded econazole after topical administration in rabbits

Fungal keratitis is an infectious disease caused by pathogenic fungi with a high blindness rate. Econazole (ECZ) is an imidazole antifungal drug with insoluble ability. Econazole-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (E-SLNs) were prepared by microemulsion method, then modified with positive and negative charge. The mean diameter of cationic E-SLNs, nearly neutral E-SLNs and anionic E-SLNs were 18.73±0.14, 19.05±0.28, 18.54±0.10 nm respectively. The Zeta potential of these different charged SLNs formulations were 19.13±0.89, -2.20±0.10, -27.40±0.67 mV respectively. The Polydispersity Index (PDI) of these three kinds of nanoparticles were about 0.2. The Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis showed that the nanoparticles were a homogeneous system. Compared with Econazole suspension (E-Susp), SLNs exhibited sustained release capability, stronger corneal penetration and enhanced inhibition of pathogenic fungi without irritation. The antifungal ability was further improved after cationic charge modification compared with E-SLNs. Studies on pharmacokinetics showed that the order of the AUC and t_1/2 of different preparations was cationic E-SLNs > nearly neutral E-SLNs > anionic E-SLNs > E-Susp in cornea and aqueous humor. It was shown that SLNs could increase corneal penetrability and ocular bioavailability while these capabilities were further enhanced with positive charge modification compared with negative charge ones.

Ethosomal Gel for Topical Administration of Dimethyl Fumarate in the Treatment of HSV-1 Infections

The infections caused by the HSV-1 virus induce lesions on the lips, mouth, face, and eye. In this study, an ethosome gel loaded with dimethyl fumarate was investigated as a possible approach to treat HSV-1 infections. A formulative study was conducted, evaluating the effect of drug concentration on size distribution and dimensional stability of ethosomes by photon correlation spectroscopy. Ethosome morphology was investigated by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, while the interaction between dimethyl fumarate and vesicles, and the drug entrapment capacity were respectively evaluated by FTIR and HPLC. To favor the topical application of ethosomes on mucosa and skin, different semisolid forms, based on xanthan gum or poloxamer 407, were designed and compared for spreadability and leakage. Dimethyl fumarate release and diffusion kinetics were evaluated in vitro by Franz cells. The antiviral activity against HSV-1 was tested by plaque reduction assay in Vero and HRPE monolayer cells, while skin irritation effect was evaluated by patch test on 20 healthy volunteers. The lower drug concentration was selected, resulting in smaller and longer stable vesicles, mainly characterized by a multilamellar organization. Dimethyl fumarate entrapment in ethosome was 91% w/w, suggesting an almost total recovery of the drug in the lipid phase. Xanthan gum 0.5%, selected to thicken the ethosome dispersion, allowed to control drug release and diffusion. The antiviral effect of dimethyl fumarate loaded in ethosome gel was demonstrated by a reduction in viral growth both 1 h and 4 h post-infection. Moreover, the patch test demonstrated the safety of the ethosomal gel applied on the skin.

COVID-19 Transmission, Current Treatment, and Future Therapeutic Strategies

At the stroke of the New Year 2020, COVID-19, a zoonotic disease that would turn into a global pandemic, was identified in the Chinese city of Wuhan. Although unique in its transmission and virulence, COVID-19 is similar to zoonotic diseases, including other SARS variants (e.g., SARS-CoV) and MERS, in exhibiting severe flu-like symptoms and acute respiratory distress. Even at the molecular level, many parallels have been identified between SARS and COVID-19 so much so that the COVID-19 virus has been named SARS-CoV-2. These similarities have provided several opportunities to treat COVID-19 patients using clinical approaches that were proven to be effective against SARS. Importantly, the identification of similarities in how SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 access the host, replicate, and trigger life-threatening pathological conditions have revealed opportunities to repurpose drugs that were proven to be effective against SARS. In this article, we first provided an overview of COVID-19 etiology vis-à-vis other zoonotic diseases, particularly SARS and MERS. Then, we summarized the characteristics of droplets/aerosols emitted by COVID-19 patients and how they aid in the transmission of the virus among people. Moreover, we discussed the molecular mechanisms that enable SARS-CoV-2 to access the host and become more contagious than other betacoronaviruses such as SARS-CoV. Further, we outlined various approaches that are currently being employed to diagnose and symptomatically treat COVID-19 in the clinic. Finally, we reviewed various approaches and technologies employed to develop vaccines against COVID-19 and summarized the attempts to repurpose various classes of drugs and novel therapeutic approaches.

Medicinal Chemistry and Methodological Advances in the Development of Peptide-Based Vaccines

The evolution of rapidly proliferating infectious and tumorigenic diseases has resulted in an urgent need to develop new and improved intervention strategies. Among the many therapeutic strategies at our disposal, our immune system remains the gold-standard in disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Vaccines have played an important role in eradicating or mitigating the spread of infectious diseases by bolstering our immunity. Despite their utility, the design and development of new, more effective vaccines remains a public health necessity. Peptide-based vaccines have been developed for a wide range of established and emerging infectious and tumorigenic diseases. New innovations in epitope design and selection, synthesis, and formulation as well as screening techniques against immunological targets have led to more effective peptide vaccines. Current and future work is geared toward the translation of peptide vaccines from preclinical to clinical utility.

Design and Evaluation of Eudragit RS-100 Based Itraconazole Nanosuspension for Ophthalmic Application

BACKGROUND

Poor water soluble compounds are difficult to develop as drug products using conventional formulation techniques.

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, the potential of Eudragit RS-100 nanosuspension as a new vehicle for the improvement of the delivery of drugs to the intraocular level was investigated.

METHODS

Solvent evaporation technique has been employed for nanosuspension preparation. Surfactant concentration and drug to polymer ratio has been optimized using 3<SUP>2</SUP> factorial design to achieve desired particle size, entrapment efficiency and percent permeation responses as dependent variables. All the formulations were characterized for particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential scanning calorimetery (DSC), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis, viscosity, antifungal study and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Secondly, itraconazole eye drop was prepared by using sulfobuty ether-β-cyclodextrin and comparatively studying its antifungal efficacy.

RESULTS

The nanosuspension had a particle size range of 332.7-779.2nm, zeta potential +0.609-16.3, entrapment efficiency 61.32 ± 1.36%-76.34 ± 2.04%. Ex vitro corneal permeability study showed that optimized itraconazole nanosuspension produced higher permeation as compared to the market formulation and Itraconazole eye drop. Moreover, optimized nanosuspension was found as more active against Candida albicans & Aspergillus flavus compared to the market formulation and Itraconazole eye drop.

CONCLUSION

The nanosuspension approach could be an ideal, promising approach to increase the solubility and dissolution of Itraconazole.

Evaluations of the Chuanqi Ophthalmic Microemulsion In Situ Gel on Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration Treatment

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the third largest eye disease. However, the eye has a variety of drug delivery barriers, which prevent the drug from reaching the lesions in the posterior segment of the eye, coupled with the pathogenesis of dry-AMD; these lead to the lack of effective treatment drugs for dry-AMD. Therefore, the developments of a suitable therapeutic drug and a novel ophthalmic preparation are of great significance for the treatment of dry-AMD. The purposes of this study were to construct a novel traditional Chinese medicine (Chuanqi Fang) anti-AMD microemulsion in situ gel for treating dry-AMD and investigate its characteristic, efficiency, irritation, and tissue distribution. In this study, the characteristic of the Chuanqi microemulsion in situ gel was measured by dynamic light scattering. The electroretinogram (ERG) indicators and the number of retinal pigment epithelial cells were measured to evaluate the therapeutic effect of the novel ophthalmic nanopreparations. Irritation was evaluated according to Technical Guideline Principles (ZGPT4-1). The analysis of tissue distribution was carried out with LC-MS. The research showed that the particle size of microemulsion was 38.56 ± 0.21 nm. The Chuanqi microemulsion in situ gel had certain roles in repairing retina damage of the dry-AMD animal model and showed no irritation. The tissue distribution study found that the microemulsion in situ gel could effectively deliver the drug to the posterior eye of the AMD model rat through the route of cornea-vitreous body-retina. In conclusion, this study provided a meaningful research strategy and research basis for the development of new dry-AMD therapeutic drugs.

Role of Herpes Simplex Envelope Glycoprotein B and Toll-Like Receptor 2 in Ocular Inflammation: An ex vivo Organotypic Rabbit Corneal Model

It has been recently reported, using in vitro studies, that the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) encoded envelope glycoprotein B (gB1) interacts with cell surface toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and induces the secretion of interleukin-8 (IL8), a representative marker of inflammatory cytokine activation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of gB1 in activating host inflammatory responses by using a secreted form of gB1 (gB1s) and an ex vivo organotypic rabbit corneal model. Abraded corneas exposed to gB1s alone or to the recombinant protein mixed with anti gB polyclonal antibody were cultured in an air-liquid interface. The corneas exposed to gB1s show the appearance of mydriasis and high levels of TLR2 and IL-8 mRNAs transcripts were detected in the superficial layer of corneal epithelial cells. Histological stain and immunohistochemical analyses revealed morphological changes in the epithelium of the treated corneas and variations in expression and localization of TLR2. Collectively these findings provide new insight into the pathogenesis of HSV-1 ocular infection by demonstrating the leading role of gB in activating an inflammatory response and in the appearance of mydriasis, a sign of HSV-1 anterior uveitis.

Novel drug delivery systems for ocular therapy: With special reference to liposomal ocular delivery

Delivery of drugs to eyes is a great challenge to researchers because of a number of barriers in the eye preventing the actual dose from reaching the site. A number of ophthalmic delivery systems have been developed in the past couple of years that are not only new but also safe and reliable and help to overcome all those barriers in the eye which are responsible for the very less bioavailability of drugs. In this review, we tried to focus on current research in ocular delivery of drug substances giving special emphasis to liposomal delivery system. A brief analysis of other novel ocular delivery systems, ocular physiology, and microbial sources of disease are also highlighted herein. We analyzed the various research findings for churning a general idea for novel ocular delivery system and its future use. The novel formulations may overcome the addressed problems of ophthalmic medication and comply with the quality assurance issues. The liposomal delivery is advantageous as they have the ability to entrap both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs and are suitable for delivery to both the anterior and posterior segment of the eye. Therefore, the use of this alternative approach is quite a necessity.

Preparation of liposome encapsulating angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides from sunflower protein hydrolysates

Liposomal angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory (ACEI) peptides were prepared from sunflower protein hydrolysates by the thin‑film ultrasonic method. Response surface methodology (RSM), in combination with fractional factorial designs and central composite design methods were utilized to optimize entrapment efficiency and balance the drug release. We found that the ratio of phospholipids to cholesterol, ultrasound time and the ratio of phospholipids to ACEI peptides were significant factors affecting entrapment efficiency (P<0.001). Optimal preparation conditions of liposomal‑ACEI peptides were the ratio of soybean phospholipids to cholesterol (w/w) of 4.1:1, PEG‑2000 dosage (%) of 4, NaCl concentration in PBS (mM) of 50, hydration temperature of 45˚C, ultrasound time of 8.05 min and the ratio of soybean phospholipids to ACEI peptides of 15:1 (w/w). The experimental entrapment efficiency of liposomal‑ACEI peptides was (91.25±0.182%). Moreover, the balanced release rate of liposome encapsulated ACEI in phosphate buffer was 77.83% after 12 h.

Ocular delivery of proteins and peptides: Challenges and novel formulation approaches

The impact of proteins and peptides on the treatment of various conditions including ocular diseases over the past few decades has been advanced by substantial breakthroughs in structural biochemistry, genetic engineering, formulation and delivery approaches. Formulation and delivery of proteins and peptides, such as monoclonal antibodies, aptamers, recombinant proteins and peptides to ocular tissues poses significant challenges owing to their large size, poor permeation and susceptibility to degradation. A wide range of advanced drug delivery systems including polymeric controlled release systems, cell-based delivery and nanowafers are being exploited to overcome the challenges of frequent administration to ocular tissues. The next generation systems integrated with new delivery technologies are anticipated to generate improved efficacy and safety through the expansion of the therapeutic target space. This review will highlight recent advances in formulation and delivery strategies of protein and peptide based biopharmaceuticals. We will also describe the current state of proteins and peptides based ocular therapy and future therapeutic opportunities.

In vitro and In vivo Studies on a Novel Bioadhesive Colloidal System: Cationic Liposomes of Ibuprofen

The objective of this study was to develop an ocular drug delivery system built on the cationic liposomes, a novel bioadhesive colloidal system, which could enhance the precorneal residence time, ocular permeation, and bioavailability of ibuprofen. The optimal formulation of cationic liposomes prepared by ethanol injection method was ultimately confirmed by an orthogonal L₉ (3³) test design. In addition, γ-scintigraphic technology and the microdialysis technique were utilized in the assessment of in vivo precorneal retention capability and ocular bioavailability individually. In the end, we acquired the optimal formulation of ibuprofen cationic liposomes (Ibu-CL) by orthogonal test design, and the particle size and entrapment efficiency (EE%) were 121.0 ± 3.5 nm and 72.9 ± 3.4%, respectively. In comparison to ibuprofen eye drops (Ibu-ED), Ibu-CL could significantly prolong the T _max to 100 min and the AUC to 1.53-folds, which indicated that the Ibu-CL could improve the precorneal retention time and bioavailability of ibuprofen. Consequently, these outcomes designated that the ibuprofen cationic liposomes we researched probably are a promising application in ocular drug delivery system.

Pharmaceutical microscale and nanoscale approaches for efficient treatment of ocular diseases

Efficient treatment of ocular diseases can be achieved thanks to the proper use of ophthalmic formulations based on emerging pharmaceutical approaches. Among them, microtechnology and nanotechnology strategies are of great interest in the development of novel drug delivery systems to be used for ocular therapy. The location of the target site in the eye as well as the ophthalmic disease will determine the route of administration (topical, intraocular, periocular, and suprachoroidal administration) and the most adequate device. In this review, we discuss the use of colloidal pharmaceutical systems (nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, dendrimers, and microemulsions), microparticles (microcapsules and microspheres), and hybrid systems (combination of different strategies) in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases. Emphasis has been placed in the therapeutic significance of each drug delivery system for clinical translation.

Nanoparticles in Antiviral Therapy

In addition to general unavailability of specific antiviral therapeutics for a variety of viral diseases, usage of most antiviral drugs is linked to their limited solubility in aqueous media, short half-life time, and inadequate penetration to specified anatomic compartments. Accordingly, there is continuous effort to improve physicochemical characteristics of existing antiviral drugs. Since nanomaterials display remarkable physical and chemical properties, high surface area to volume ratio, and increased reactivity, new approaches for antiviral therapies include combinations of nanomaterials and current antiviral agents. Multivalent nanostructures, polymers, dendrimers, and liposomes can establish multivalent binding interactions with many biological systems and thus can target pathogenic interactions. There are reports about anitiviral activities of different metal nanoparticles, especially silver nanoparticles and their potential for treatment, prophylaxis, and control of viral infections. Integration of classic antiviral drugs, in the form of multiple ligands, onto nanostructures provides the advantages by creating a high local concentration of active molecules. This article will summarize the antiviral activity of different nanoparticle-based approaches currently available for the treatment of viral infections, and it will discuss metal nanoparticles as possible future antiviral drugs.

Lipid nanoparticles (SLN, NLC): Overcoming the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye - Part II - Ocular drug-loaded lipid nanoparticles

In the recent decades, various controlled delivery systems have been introduced with the aim to improve solubility, stability and bioavailability of poorly absorbed drugs. Among all, lipid nanoparticles gather interesting properties as drug or gene delivery carriers. These systems, composed either of solid lipids (SLN) or of solid and liquid lipids (NLC) stabilized with surfactants, combine the advantages of other colloidal particles such as polymeric nanoparticles, fat emulsions and liposomes avoiding their main disadvantages. Lipid nanoparticles represent an interesting approach for eye drug delivery as they can improve the corneal absorption of drugs enhancing their bioavailability. The Generally Recognized as Safe status of formulation excipients, the scaling-up facilities and the possibility of sterilization, make them suitable for industrial production. In this review, the latest findings, potential applications, and challenges related to the use of lipid nanoparticles for ocular drug delivery are comprehensively discussed.

Bioadhesive chitosan-loaded liposomes: A more efficient and higher permeable ocular delivery platform for timolol maleate

The aim of this study was to develop and characterize a novel colloidal system, namely, timolol maleate chitosan coated liposomes (TM-CHL) to enhance the ocular permeation, precorneal residence time and bioavailability. The resulting TM-CHL was the most promising formulation with a mean particle size of 150.7nm and an EE% of 75.83±1.61%. In vitro release of the TM-CHL showed an extended drug release profile. The TM-CHL exhibited significant mucin adhesion and compared with commercial eye drops, TM-CHL produced a 3.18-fold increase in the apparent permeability coefficient (Papp), resulting in a significant enhancement of corneal permeation. In addition, the gamma scintigraphic study and the pharmacokinetic study showed that TM-CHL could be retained at the corneal surface for longer time compared with eye drops. The ocular irritation study indicated that the developed liposomes produced no significant irritant effects. Furthermore, pharmacodynamics results showed that the maximum intraocular pressure(IOP) produced by TM-CHL was (19.67±1.14) mmHg compared with the (23.80±1.49) mmHg for TM eye drops, revealing that TM-CHL was more effective in reducing the IOP. These results demonstrate that CHL is a potentially useful carrier for ocular drug delivery, which could improve the efficacy of TM.

Nanostructures for the Inhibition of Viral Infections

Multivalent interactions are omnipresent in biology and confer biological systems with dramatically enhanced affinities towards different receptors. Such multivalent binding interactions have lately been considered for the development of new therapeutic strategies against bacterial and viral infections. Multivalent polymers, dendrimers, and liposomes have successfully targeted pathogenic interactions. While a high synthetic effort was often needed for the development of such therapeutics, the integration of multiple ligands onto nanostructures turned to be a viable alternative. Particles modified with multiple ligands have the additional advantage of creating a high local concentration of binding molecules. This review article will summarize the different nanoparticle-based approaches currently available for the treatment of viral infections.

Peptide Vaccine: Progress and Challenges

Conventional vaccine strategies have been highly efficacious for several decades in reducing mortality and morbidity due to infectious diseases. The bane of conventional vaccines, such as those that include whole organisms or large proteins, appear to be the inclusion of unnecessary antigenic load that, not only contributes little to the protective immune response, but complicates the situation by inducing allergenic and/or reactogenic responses. Peptide vaccines are an attractive alternative strategy that relies on usage of short peptide fragments to engineer the induction of highly targeted immune responses, consequently avoiding allergenic and/or reactogenic sequences. Conversely, peptide vaccines used in isolation are often weakly immunogenic and require particulate carriers for delivery and adjuvanting. In this article, we discuss the specific advantages and considerations in targeted induction of immune responses by peptide vaccines and progresses in the development of such vaccines against various diseases. Additionally, we also discuss the development of particulate carrier strategies and the inherent challenges with regard to safety when combining such technologies with peptide vaccines.

Ocular Tissue Distribution of Topically Applied PEGylated and Non-PEGylated Liposomes

Topical ocular drug delivery has always been a challenging area due to poor ocular bioavailability. Improved drug delivery systems such as liposomes are capable of entrapping both the lipophilic and hydrophilic substances. Therefore, they are effective formulations for drug delivery to targeted structure. PEGylated-liposomes are known to have stealth properties due to their ability of resisting removal by phagocytic cells. This study compares ability of PEGylated-and nonPEGylated-liposomes in delivering lipophilic fluorescent dye, Dil, to several ocular tissues. Sprague-Dawley rats (190-250g) were divided into 2 groups that received unilateral topical application of single drop of PEGylated-liposome (PEG-Lip) or nonPEGylated-liposome (Lip). Contralateral eyes served as control and received no treatment. Animals were sacrificed at several time points, post-instillation, and eyeballs were enucleated. Cryostat sectioning was done and sections were viewed with fluorescence microscope. Fluorescence intensity (FI) was calculated and quantified. In treated eyes, nonPEGylated-liposomes showed faster corneal permeation compared to PEGylated-liposomes. NonPEGylated-liposomes also showed faster availability in ciliary body and retina of treated eyes, possibly a consequence of faster corneal permeation. Their higher engulfment by macrophages and subsequent localization in vascular tissue may also be a contributing factor. In contralateral eyes, both groups showed dye distribution indicating their significant systemic distribution. Higher availability of non-PEGylated-liposomes in contralateral eyes also indicated that they are more likely to undergo phagocytosis and consequently faster removal. In conclusion, PEG-lip showed slower corneal permeation in the treated eyes. Both types of liposomes undergo significant systemic absorption. Since, PEG-lip are more resistant to phagocytosis, they may provide more sustained drug delivery.

Topical delivery of ocular therapeutics: carrier systems and physical methods

OBJECTIVE

The basic concepts, major mechanisms, technological developments and advantages of the topical application of lipid-based systems (microemulsions, nanoemulsions, liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles), polymeric systems (hydrogels, contact lenses, polymeric nanoparticles and dendrimers) and physical methods (iontophoresis and sonophoresis) will be reviewed.

KEY FINDINGS

Although very convenient for patients, topical administration of conventional drug formulations for the treatment of eye diseases requires high drug doses, frequent administration and rarely provides high drug bioavailability. Thus, strategies to improve the efficacy of topical treatments have been extensively investigated. In general, the majority of the successful delivery systems are present on the ocular surface over an extended period of time, and these systems typically improve drug bioavailability in the anterior chamber whereas the physical methods facilitate drug penetration over a very short period of time through ocular barriers, such as the cornea and sclera.

SUMMARY

Although in the early stages, the combination of these delivery systems with physical methods would appear to be a promising tool to decrease the dose and frequency of administration; thereby, patient compliance and treatment efficacy will be improved.

Recent advances in topical ophthalmic drug delivery with lipid-based nanocarriers

Ocular barriers and the poor water solubility of drug candidates present a number of problems for the development of ocular drug delivery systems. Recently, the emergence of lipid-based nanocarriers has provided a viable means of enhancing the bioavailability of ophthalmic formulations. A number of these formulations have been found to be clinically active and several others are currently undergoing clinical trials. In this review, the advantages of lipid-based nanocarriers as non-invasive topical ocular drug delivery systems are presented. Many systems, including emulsions, liposomes, cubosomes, niosomes and other lipid-based nanocarriers, are reviewed.

Cationic liposomal vaccine adjuvants in animal challenge models: overview and current clinical status

Cationic liposome formulations can function as efficient vaccine adjuvants. However, due to the highly diverse nature of lipids, cationic liposomes have different physical-chemical characteristics that influence their adjuvant mechanisms and their relevance for use in different vaccines. These characteristics can be further manipulated by incorporation of additional lipids or stabilizers, and inclusion of carefully selected immunostimulators is a feasible strategy when tailoring cationic liposomal adjuvants for specific disease targets. Thus, cationic liposomes present a plasticity, which makes them promising adjuvants for future vaccines. This versatility has also led to a vast amount of literature on different experimental liposomal formulations in combination with a wide range of immunostimulators. Here, we have compiled information about the animal challenge models and administration routes that have been used to study vaccine adjuvants based on cationic liposomes and provide an overview of the applicability, progress and clinical status of cationic liposomal vaccine adjuvants.

Intranasal immunization in mice with non-ionic surfactants vesicles containing HSV immunogens: a preliminary study as possible vaccine against genital herpes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of intranasal immunization with non-ionic surfactant vesicles (NISV) containing either the secretory recombinant form of glycoprotein B (gBs) of herpes simplex virus type 1 or a related polylysine reach peptides (DTK) for induction of protective immunity against genital herpes infection in mice. NISV were prepared by lipid film hydration method. The mean diameter of vesicles was around 390 nm for DTK-containing NISV (DTK-NISV) and 320 nm for gB1s-containing NISV (gB1s-NISV). The encapsulation efficiency of the molecules was comprised between 57% and 70%. After 7-14 day NISV maintained stable dimensions and a drug encapsulation higher than 48%. We showed that intranasal immunization with gB1s-NISV induces gB-specific IgG antibody and lymphoproliferative responses, whereas vaccination with DTK-NISV was not able to generate a gB-specific immune response. Our results indicate that vaccination of BALB/c mice with gB1s-NISV induced Th1 responses, as characterized by increased titre of IG2a in plasma and IFN-production in CD4+ splenic cells. Intranasal immunization with gB1s-NISV could elicit 90% (almost complete) protection against a heterologous lethal vaginal challenge with herpes simplex virus type 2. These data may have implications for the development of a mucosal vaccine against genital herpes.

Redefining tissue engineering for nanomedicine in ophthalmology

Working at the nanoscale means to completely rethink how to approach engineering in the body in general and in the eye in particular. In nanomedicine, tissue engineering is the ability to influence an environment either by adding, subtracting or manipulating that environment to allow it to be more conducive for its purpose. The goal is to function at the optimum state, or to return to that optimum state. Additive tissue engineering replaces cells or tissue, or tries to get something to grow that is no longer there. Arrestive tissue engineering tries to stop aberrant growth which, if left uncontrolled, would result in a decrease in function. Nano delivery of therapeutics can perform both additive and arrestive functions influencing the environment either way, depending on the targeting. By manipulating the environment at the nanoscale, the rate and distribution of healing can be controlled. It infers that potential applications of nanomedicine in ophthalmology include procedures, such as corneal endothelial cell transplantation, single retinal ganglion cell repair, check of retinal ganglion cell viability, building of nanofibre scaffolds, such as self-assembling peptides, to create a scaffold-like tissue-bridging structure to provide a framework for axonal regeneration in the case of optic nerve reconnection or eye transplantation, and ocular drug delivery. Examples of potential arrestive therapies include gene-related treatment modalities to inhibit intraocular neovascularization and to block retinal cell apoptosis. Looking towards the future, this review focuses on how nanoscale tissue engineering can be and is being used to influence that local environment.

Recent applications of liposomes in ophthalmic drug delivery

Liposomal formulations were significantly explored over the last decade for the ophthalmic drug delivery applications. These formulations are mainly composed of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and other constituents such as cholesterol and lipid-conjugated hydrophilic polymers. Liposomes are biodegradable and biocompatible in nature. Current approaches for topical delivery of liposomes are focused on improving the corneal adhesion and permeation by incorporating various bioadhesive and penetration enhancing polymers. In the case of posterior segment disorders improvement in intravitreal half life and targeted drug delivery to the retina is achieved by liposomes. In this paper we have attempted to summarize the applications of liposomes in the field of ophthalmic drug delivery by citing numerous investigators over the last decade.

Solid lipid nanoparticles for ocular drug delivery

Ocular drug delivery remains challenging because of the complex nature and structure of the eye. Conventional systems, such as eye drops and ointments, are inefficient, whereas systemic administration requires high doses resulting in significant toxicity. There is a need to develop novel drug delivery carriers capable of increasing ocular bioavailability and decreasing both local and systemic cytotoxicity. Nanotechnology is expected to revolutionize ocular drug delivery. Many nano-structured systems have been employed for ocular drug delivery and yielded some promising results. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have been looked at as a potential drug carrier system since the 1990s. SLNs do not show biotoxicity as they are prepared from physiological lipids. SLNs are especially useful in ocular drug delivery as they can enhance the corneal absorption of drugs and improve the ocular bioavailability of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. SLNs have another advantage of allowing autoclave sterilization, a necessary step towards formulation of ocular preparations. This review outlines in detail the various production, characterization, sterilization, and stabilization techniques for SLNs. In-vitro and in-vivo methods to study the drug release profile of SLNs have been explained. Special attention has been given to the nature of lipids and surfactants commonly used for SLN production. A summary of previous studies involving the use of SLNs in ocular drug delivery is provided, along with a critical evaluation of SLNs as a potential ocular delivery system.

Different particulate systems--bypass the biological barriers?

The human body has adapted to defend against the aggressive biological or chemical agents. As a result, the defence mechanisms of the human body became barriers for the drug delivery. Theoretically, any problem that prevents a drug from reaching its site of action is considered to be a barrier to drug delivery. The aim of this article is to discuss the possibility of three types of nanocarriers (nanoparticles, liposomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles) to help the drugs to pass some important biological barriers (blood-brain barriers, skin, eye, and tumors) using different strategies/designs of drug delivery systems.

Ocular tolerance to a topical formulation of hyaluronic acid and chitosan-based nanoparticles

PURPOSE

Hyaluronic acid-chitosan nanoparticles (HA-CS NPs) have the potential to serve as a reliable drug delivery system to topically treat ocular surface disorders. We evaluated the in vivo uptake by ocular structures, the acute tolerance, and possible alterations of tear film physiology in rabbits.

METHODS

Fluorescent HA-CS NPs (fl-HA-CS NPs) were prepared by ionotropic gelation using fluoresceinamine-labeled hyaluronic acid and resuspended in buffer. fl-HA-CS NPs (30 microL, 0.5 mg/mL) and fluoresceinamine-HA conjugate (30 microL) were instilled into rabbit eyes every 30 minutes for 6 hours. In vivo uptake and acute tolerance were characterized 24 hours after the first instillation and compared with preinstillation measurements. Clinical signs, including tear production, lacrimal drainage system patency and reflux, and ocular surface pathology, were evaluated.

RESULTS

The rabbits showed no signs of ocular discomfort or irritation after exposure to HA-CS NPs. No macroscopic alteration in ocular surface structures was observed. fl-HA-CS NPs were present inside conjunctival and corneal epithelial cells, although the distribution within the cells was different. The fl-HA-CS NPs had no significant effects on tissue morphology and functionality, tear production, or drainage.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these data demonstrate that HA-CS NPs are a safe drug carrier for ocular surface application.

Phycocyanin liposomes for topical anti-inflammatory activity: in-vitro in-vivo studies

Objectives

The aim of this work was to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) on skin inflammation after topical administration and the influence of liposomal delivery on its pharmacokinetic properties.

Methods

Liposomes of different size and structure were prepared with different techniques using soy phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol. Vesicular dispersions were characterised by transmission electron microscopy, optical and fluorescence microscopy for vesicle formation and morphology, dynamic laser light scattering for size distribution, and Zetasizer for zeta-potential. C-PC skin penetration and permeation experiments were performed in vitro using vertical diffusion Franz cells and human skin treated with either free or liposomal drug dispersed in a Carbopol gel.

Key findings

The protein was mainly localised in the stratum corneum, while no permeation of C-PC through the whole skin thickness was detected. Two percent C-PC-encapsulating liposomes showed the best drug accumulation in the stratum corneum and the whole skin, higher than that of the corresponding free 2% C-PC gel. Moreover, skin deposition of liposomal C-PC was dose dependent since skin accumulation values increased as the C-PC concentration in liposomes increased. The topical anti-inflammatory activity of samples was evaluated in vivo as inhibition of croton oil-induced or arachidonic acid-induced ear oedema in rats.

Conclusions

The results showed that C-PC can be successfully used as an anti-inflammatory drug and that liposomal encapsulation is effective in improving its anti-inflammatory activity.

Freeze-dried liposomes as potential carriers for ocular administration of cytochrome c against selenite cataract formation

Objectives

In this study, the preparation, stability and anti-cataract effect of cationic freeze-dried liposomes containing cytochrome c, along with nicotinamide and adenosine, are described.

Methods

Cytochrome c-loaded cationic liposomes (CC-L) were prepared by the thin-layer evaporation technique and lyophilized to obtain freeze-dried cytochrome c liposomes (CC-F). The influence of the preparation components on the liposomal encapsulation efficiency and the stability were studied. The anti-cataract effect of the CC-F was demonstrated through attenuating lens opacity development with slit lamp examination in rats with selenite-induced cataract.

Key findings

Our study indicates that: (1) the liposomal encapsulation efficiency increased with increasing phosphatidylcholine content and reduced in the presence of stearylamine. Moreover, optimal encapsulation efficiency was obtained at an appropriate ratio of phosphatidylcholine to cholesterol; (2) CC-F was stable for at least 12 months at 4°C; (3) satisfactory improvements in lens opacity were shown in the cytochrome c-treated groups, especially for the CC-F-treated group with the decreased percentage of lens opacity at about 28% at the final examination.

Conclusions

CC-F were shown to be stable superior ophthalmic carriers and were able to markedly retard the onset of cataract development.

Ciprofloxacin liposomes as vesicular reservoirs for ocular delivery: formulation, optimization, and in vitro characterization

Management of extraocular diseases is mainly limited by the inability to provide long-term drug delivery without avoiding the systemic drug exposure and/or affecting the intraocular structures and poor availability of drugs, which may be overcome by prolonging the contact time with the ocular system, for instance with liposomes. Development and optimization of reverse phase evaporation ciprofloxacin (CPF) HCl liposomes for ocular drug delivery was carried out using a 2(5) full factorial design based on five independent variables. The effects of the studied parameters on drug entrapment efficiency (EE), particle size, and percentage of drug released after 1 and 10 h were investigated. The results obtained pointed out that the molar concentration of cholesterol was the predominant factor that increased the EE% of the drug and the particle size responses. The percentage of drug released after 1 h was significantly controlled by the initial CPF concentration while that after 10 h was controlled by molar cholesterol concentration. The designed liposomes had average particle sizes that ranged from 2.5 to 7.23 microm. In addition, liposomes revealed a fast release during the first hour followed by a more gradual drug release during the 24-h period according to Higuchi diffusion model.

Spectroscopic characterization of DMPC/DOTAP cationic liposomes and their interactions with DNA and drugs

Gene and synthetic drug-delivery vectors have been developed and characterized to treat several genetic diseases and cancers. Our study aims at characterizing cationic liposomes containing the zwitterionic phospholipid DMPC and the cationic lipid DOTAP as well as their interactions with two types of DNA and a new class of antineoplastic agents derived from arylchloroethylureas (CEU). Results obtained using FTIR spectroscopy as well as (31)P and (2)H NMR indicate that DMPC and DOTAP form cationic liposomes in a highly disordered fluid phase at a molar ratio of 1:1. In addition, the FTIR results indicate that the presence of DNA or CEUs within the liposomes does not significantly affect the conformational order of both the DMPC and DOTAP acyl chains. Our results therefore provide a detailed characterization of complexes between cationic liposomes and both DNA and drugs and indicate that these complexes are stable and fluid assemblies.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE TREATMENT AND DETECTION OF INTRAOCULAR CANCERS

Tremendous progress in nanotechnology has lead to the development of nanometer-sized objects as medical implants or devices. Many of these nanodevices have recently been tested in many cancer diagnostic and therapeutic applications, such as leukemia, melanoma, breast tumor, prostate tumor, and brain cancer. Despite the increasing importance of nanotechnology in cancer, the potential of these nanodevices in diagnosing and treating intraocular cancers has not been systematically evaluated. This review summarizes the significant advancements and potential areas for development in the field of nanotechnology-based intraocular drug delivery and imaging.

Recent perspectives in ocular drug delivery

Anatomy and physiology of the eye makes it a highly protected organ. Designing an effective therapy for ocular diseases, especially for the posterior segment, has been considered as a formidable task. Limitations of topical and intravitreal route of administration have challenged scientists to find alternative mode of administration like periocular routes. Transporter targeted drug delivery has generated a great deal of interest in the field because of its potential to overcome many barriers associated with current therapy. Application of nanotechnology has been very promising in the treatment of a gamut of diseases. In this review, we have briefly discussed several ocular drug delivery systems such as microemulsions, nanosuspensions, nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, dendrimers, implants, and hydrogels. Potential for ocular gene therapy has also been described in this article. In near future, a great deal of attention will be paid to develop non-invasive sustained drug release for both anterior and posterior segment eye disorders. A better understanding of nature of ocular diseases, barriers and factors affecting in vivo performance, would greatly drive the development of new delivery systems. Current momentum in the invention of new drug delivery systems hold a promise towards much improved therapies for the treatment of vision threatening disorders.

Ocular drug delivery: nanomedicine applications

Nanocarriers, such as nanoparticles, liposomes and dendrimers, are used to enhance ocular drug delivery. Easily administered as eye drops, these systems provide a prolonged residence time at the ocular surface after instillation, thus avoiding the clearance mechanisms of the eye. In combination with a controlled drug delivery, it should be possible to develop ocular formulations that provide therapeutic concentrations for a long period of time at the site of action, thereby reducing the dose administered as well as the instillation frequency. In intraocular drug delivery, the same systems can be used to protect and release the drug in a controlled way, reducing the number of injections required. Another potential advantage is the targeting of the drug to the site of action, leading to a decrease in the dose required and a decrease in side effects.

Non-phospholipid vesicles as carriers for peptides and proteins: Production, characterization and stability studies

In the present study, the preparation, characterization and activity of non-phospholipid vesicles (NPV) containing three aminoacid-based molecules were described. As model compounds trypsin, bovine basic pancreatic inhibitor and polylysine rich peptides derived from the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) glycoprotein B were employed. NPV were chosen as alternative to liposomes for the possible administration of aminoacid based molecules via mucous membrane (nasal or vaginal) routes. NPV containing the indicated model drugs have shown to be more stable in term of size with respect to liposomes encapsulating the same model drugs previously produced by our group [Cortesi, R. Argnani, R., Esposito, E., Dalpiaz, A. Scatturin, A., Bortolotti, F., Lufino, M., Guerrini, R., Incorvaia, C., Menegatti, E., Manservigi, R., 2006. Cationic liposomes as potential carriers for ocular administration of peptides with antiherpetic activity. Int. J. Pharm. 317, 90-100]. In addition our study indicates that the produced NPV (i) are able to encapsulate the model drugs over 49%, (ii) are characterized by dimensions compatible with applications on the mucous membrane, (iii) remain stable in size for at least 3 months and (iv) can release the model drug (after a slight lag time) in a controlled fashion as compared to that of the corresponding free solution.