Reptile vector-borne diseases of zoonotic concern

Detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in Blood of the Lizard Microlophus atacamensis: Understanding the T. cruzi Cycle in a Coastal Island of the Atacama Desert

Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan causative of Chagas disease, is primarily transmitted through blood-sucking insects and infects mammalian and some reptilian hosts. In Chile, insects of the Mepraia genus are key vectors of T. cruzi in its wild transmission cycle. High prevalence and mixed infection of T. cruzi lineages have been reported in a Mepraia population on Santa María Island in the Atacama Desert. However, no small mammals have been reported. The island's vertebrate community is dominated by the lizard Microlophus atacamensis and marine and scavenger birds. This study aimed to research blood samples of M. atacamensis for the presence of T. cruzi DNA (kDNA and satDNA) using conventional PCR (cPCR) and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and estimate parasitemia. Our findings reveal that 39.4% of 33 individuals were positive with both cPCR and qPCR, while when assessing infection with either technique, it rises up to 81.8%. These findings confirm that M. atacamensis is a host of T. cruzi, suggesting its potential role as a key reservoir in the island's transmission cycle. This study provides new insights into the life cycle of T. cruzi in the coastal Atacama Desert, highlighting the importance of reptiles in the epidemiology of this parasite.

Meta-transcriptomic sequencing reveals divergent RNA viruses in geckos

Geckos are generally small, predominantly nocturnal reptiles, with several species commonly found close to human habitations. However, little is known about viral diversity in geckos. Using meta-transcriptomic sequencing we identified four novel RNA viruses - provisionally denoted Gecko astrovirus, Gecko parechovirus, Gecko reptillovirus, and Gecko hartmanivirus - in geckos sampled in October 2019 from Hainan Province, China. The presence of these viruses was confirmed by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that these viruses were most closely related to those identified in various gecko species from China and Australia, such that they represent gecko-specific lineages, yet were also genetically distinct, with amino acid sequence identities to their closest relatives ranging from 38.6 % to 74.2 %. A co-phylogeny analysis revealed a complex interplay between long-term virus-host co-divergence and more recent host jumping, which differed in frequency among groups. In sum, we demonstrate the presence of four novel gecko-associated RNA viruses, expanding our understanding of viral diversity in these common animal species.

Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in Wild Animals and Birds from Two Rehabilitation Facilities in Greece

Ticks are temporary ectoparasites that serve as vectors for a wide range of pathogens affecting both wildlife and humans. In Greece, research on the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in wildlife is limited. This study investigates the presence of pathogens, including Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp., as well as tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) viruses, in ticks collected from 28 wild animals across 10 different animal species. Ticks were manually harvested and identified using molecular methods, with sequencing confirming the presence of Hyalomma aegyptium, H. marginatum, H. anatolicum, Ixodes frontalis, and I. ventalloi. Among the pathogens detected, R. aeschlimannii was the most prevalent, particularly in H. aegyptium ticks from tortoises. Additionally, R. africae was identified in H. aegyptium from tortoises, marking the first report of this pathogen in this tick species in Greece. Hemolivia mauritanica, an apicomplexan parasite commonly found in Testudo tortoises, was also detected. No evidence of Babesia spp., Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., or viral nucleic acid was found. Phylogenetic analysis revealed close genetic relationships between the detected Rickettsia species and those previously reported in neighboring regions. These findings underscore the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens in Greece and highlight the need for comprehensive surveillance to prevent future outbreaks.

Serosurvey of Rickettsia spp. and Ehrlichia canis in Dogs from Shelters in Sicily (Southern Italy)

Vector-borne diseases represent a serious threat to human and animal health, especially where environmental conditions favor pathogen-carrying vectors. Dogs serve as natural hosts for two tick-borne pathogens: Ehrlichia canis, which causes canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, and spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia spp., a zoonotic threat in the Mediterranean region. Rhipicephalus sanguineus is the primary vector for these pathogens. Shelter dogs, due to increased exposure to ticks and confined living conditions, facilitate the spread of vector-borne pathogens, raising the risk of zoonotic transmission. This study conducted a serological survey of 1287 dogs from two shelters, assessing exposure to Rickettsia spp. and E. canis and examining the influence of demographic and environmental factors. Seroprevalence rates were 41.8% for Rickettsia spp. and 24.5% for E. canis, with 14% of dogs positive for both pathogens. No significant association was found with sex or breed. A higher seroprevalence was observed in dogs older than 12 months and in those from the shelter on the Mediterranean coast compared to those from the Tyrrhenian coast, likely due to climatic differences. The study highlights the role of climate in disease spread and the need for public health interventions, supporting One Health initiatives to prevent zoonotic disease transmission.

Mosquitoes feeding on ectothermic hosts: from host seeking to pathogen transmission

While much research has centered on mosquitoes transmitting pathogens to mammals and birds, several species feed on cold-blooded hosts, including amphibians, reptiles, fish, and various invertebrates. Despite limited knowledge about these alternative feeding habits, delving into their biology offers valuable insights into the evolutionary origins of blood feeding and aids in developing comprehensive epidemiological models for vector-borne diseases. This review sheds light on these 'alternative' hosts, highlighting recent discoveries in this field and probing into the evolutionary theories surrounding blood feeding in mosquitoes. Additionally, we delve into the host-seeking cues used by ectotherm-feeding mosquitoes and the physiological and mechanical challenges inherent in feeding on cold-blooded animals, contrasting them with endotherm-feeding mosquitoes. Finally, we examine the pathogens these mosquitoes can transmit. While our understanding of mosquitoes with alternative hosts remains incomplete, this review synthesizes existing knowledge, offering insights into the biology and ecology of mosquito species that target cold-blooded hosts.

Parasites of reptiles in Iran (1922-2023): A literature review

Reptiles are among the most diverse groups of animals, inhabiting nearly all continents and environments. Understanding their parasite biodiversity has garnered significant interest, particularly from a One Health perspective. Although the highly diverse reptile fauna of Iran, comprising 272 species i.e. 89 snakes (Serpentes), 171 lizards (Sauria), 8 turtles, 2 tortoises (Testudines), 1 crocodile (Crocodilia), and 1 worm-lizard (Amphisbaenia), there is a shortage of information about parasites. The present review is a compilation of 62 studies published from 1922 to August 2024. We present information on 56 species of reptiles from five groups (amphisbaenians, crocodiles, testudines, snakes, and lizards) and 98 parasitic taxa belonging to different protozoa and metazoa i.e. nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, acanthocephala, leeches, ticks, mites, and myiasis -producing flies. Although 63 taxa were diagnosed at the species level, 35 parasite taxa were only reported at the genus or family levels. Reviewing the literature, we found a paucity of information about endemic reptiles several of which are vulnerable species. Considering that some of the detected parasites e.g. Cryptosporidium and amoebae have serious clinical and/or public health threats molecular diagnostic techniques are needed for precise identification and understanding of the epidemiology and the potential zoonotic implications associated with parasites of reptiles. There is also a need to understand the exact distribution and host-parasite associations in different reptilian species present in Iran including the role of the reptiles as intermediate and reservoir hosts.

Snakes as sentinel of zoonotic yeasts and bio-indicators of environmental quality

Reptiles in the wild or as pets may act as spreaders of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. However, studies on the mycobiota of these animals are scanty. This study investigates the occurrence of yeasts from the cloacal swabs of snakes of different origins and the antifungal profile of the isolated strains. A total of 180 cloacal samples of snakes were collected from Morocco (Group I: n = 68) and Italy (Group II: n = 112). Yeast species were biochemically and molecularly identified. A total of 72 yeast strains belonging to 13 genera, 8 from snakes in Group I and five from snakes in Group II were identified. The most frequently isolated species were Trichosporon asahii (22.2%) and Candida tropicalis (15.3%) from snakes in Group I and Debaryomyces spp. (16.7%) and Metahyphopichia silvanorum (11.1%) from snakes in Group II. Multiple azole and amphotericin B (AmB) resistance phenomena were detected among isolated yeasts. Azole multi drug resistance phenomena were detected among yeasts from Group I and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa from Group II, whereas AmB resistance phenomena among those from Group II. Data suggest that snakes may harbor pathogenetic yeasts, being potential reservoirs and spreaders of these organisms in the environment. Since the yeast species community from different groups of animals as well as their antifungal profile reflects the epidemiology of human yeast infections in the same geographical areas, the results indicate that snakes may be considered as sentinels for human/animal pathogenic microorganisms and bio-indicators of environmental quality.

In vitro evaluation of antiviral activity in carnivorous plant species

Sarracenia purpurea is a carnivorous plant historically used to treat smallpox infections. Our previous data found S. purpurea had broad spectrum antiviral activity in vitro. S. purpurea is one of several hundred identified carnivorous species of plants. Carnivorous plants have evolved through convergent evolution in at least ten independent events, usually in response to harsh environments where nutrition from prey is required for growth. These prey are known vectors of plant viruses that might introduce novel biotic stressors and defense pathways in carnivorous plants. This study evaluated the antiviral activity of several non-carnivorous and carnivorous plants from four evolutionarily distinct clades. Results demonstrated that carnivorous plants have evolved antiviral activity, a trait that is not present in related species of non-carnivorous plants. The antiviral trait may be due to the plant-prey relationship with insect vectors and an evolutionary need for carnivorous plants to have more robust antiviral defense systems.

Bartonella, Blechomonas and Trypanosoma in fleas from the long-tailed ground squirrel (Spermophilus undulatus) in northwestern China

Fleas are known to be vectors for a variety of pathogens in veterinary medicine. However, no information is available on the presence of Bartonella and Trypanosomatidae in fleas of the long-tailed ground squirrel (LTGR, Spermophilus undulatus). The present study shows detection of these pathogens in LTGR fleas. During 2022-2023, a total of 396 fleas were collected from 91 LTGRs in 4 alpine regions of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (northwestern China) and grouped into 54 flea pools. Flea species were identified according to morphological characteristics and molecular data. In addition, all flea samples were analyzed for Bartonella with amplification and sequencing of a 380-bp part of the gltA gene and Trypanosomatidae with targeting the 18S rRNA (850-bp) and gGAPDH (820-bp) genes. The flea species included Frontopsylla elatoides elatoides (203), Neopsylla mana (49), and Citellophilus tesquorum dzetysuensis (144). Of 54 flea pools, seven (12.96%) tested positive for Bartonella, and three (5.56%) were positive for Trypanosomatidae. Based on BLASTn and phylogenetic analyses, i) Bartonella washoensis in F. elatoides elatoides and C. tesquorum dzetysuensis, and Bartonella rochalimae in F. elatoides elatoides were identified. Interestingly, a new haplotype within the species Ba. washoensis was discovered in C. tesquorum dzetysuensis; and ii) Blechomonas luni was confirmed in C. tesquorum dzetysuensis and Trypanosoma otospermophili in F. elatoides elatoides. Two Bartonella species and two Trypanosomatidae members were discovered for the first time in fleas from LTGRs. This study broadens our understanding of the geographic distribution and potential vectors for Bartonella and Trypanosomatidae.

Candida auris from the Egyptian cobra: Role of snakes as potential reservoirs

Candida auris represents one of the most urgent threats to public health, although its ecology remains largely unknown. Because amphibians and reptiles may present favorable conditions for C. auris colonization, cloacal and blood samples (n = 68), from several snake species, were cultured and molecularly screened for C. auris using molecular amplification of glycosylphosphatidylinositol protein-encoding genes and ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequencing. Candida auris was isolated from the cloacal swab of one Egyptian cobra (Naja haje legionis) and molecularly identified in its cloaca and blood. The isolation of C. auris from wild animals is herein reported for the first time, thus suggesting the role that these animals could play as reservoirs of this emerging pathogen. The occurrence of C. auris in blood requires further investigation, although the presence of cationic antimicrobial peptides in the plasma of reptiles could play a role in reducing the vitality of the fungus.

Parasites and microorganisms associated with the snakes collected for the "festa Dei serpari" in Cocullo, Italy

While in much of the Western world snakes are feared, in the small, rural, mountainous town of Cocullo, in the middle of central Italy, snakes are annually collected and celebrated in a sacro-profane ritual. Every 1st of May, Serpari (snake catchers) capture and showcase dozens of non-venomous snakes to celebrate the ritual of San Domenico. In order to detect potential zoonotic pathogens within this unique epidemiological context, parasites and microorganisms of snakes harvested for the "festa dei serpari" ritual were investigated. Snakes (n = 112) were examined and ectoparasites collected, as well as blood and feces sampled. Ectoparasites were identified morpho-molecularly, and coprological examination conducted through direct smear and flotation. Molecular screenings were performed to identify parasites and microorganisms in collected samples (i.e., Mesostigmata mites, Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp. and helminths). Overall, 28.5% (32/112) of snakes were molecularly positive for at least one parasite and/or microorganism. Endosymbiont Wolbachia bacteria were identified from Macronyssidae mites and zoonotic vector-borne pathogens (e.g., Rickettsia, Leishmania), as well as orally transmitted pathogens (i.e., Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas), were detected from blood and feces. Thus, given the central role of the snakes in the tradition of Cocullo, surveys of their parasitic fauna and associated zoonotic pathogens may aid to generate conservation policies to benefit the human-snake interactions, whilst preserving the cultural patrimony of this event.

Tick infestation in spur-thighed tortoise population: a pilot study for unraveling epidemiological patterns and demographic consequences

Ectoparasites, such as ticks, modulate host population dynamics by impacting demographic traits. They transmit infectious agents among their hosts, posing a critical threat to animal and public health. This study aimed to characterize and analyze the Hyalomma aegyptium infestation on one of its main hosts, the spur-thighed tortoise, its effects on demographic traits, and to determine the diversity of infectious agents present in both ticks and tortoises in the Maamora forest (northwestern Morocco). Our results show that 100% of the tortoises were parasitized by adult ticks in spring, an infestation intensity of 4 ticks/tortoise (5.1 and 3.6 ticks/tortoise in males and females, respectively; 4.2 and 3.3 ticks/tortoise in gravid and non-gravid females, respectively) and an abundance ranging from 1 to 12. Although without significant differences, male tortoises had higher tick abundances than females. The interaction of tortoise sex and body condition was significantly related to tick abundance, male body condition decreased with higher tick abundance in contrast to females. Nevertheless, the interaction of body condition and reproductive stage of females was not significantly related to tick abundance. Gravid females were significantly associated with tick abundance, showing a slightly higher infestation than non-gravid females. Molecular analysis of pooled tick samples revealed the presence of Ehrlichia ewingii, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii, and Rickettsia africae, with a minimum infection rate of 0.61 to 1.84%. However, blood sample analysis of the tortoises was infectious agent-free, pinpointing a lack of significant health problems. Given the possible effect on the transmission of zoonotic diseases by spur-thighed tortoises associated with their frequent collection as pets, it should be surveyed to control possible human health problems. In conservation terms, as a long-lived species, the role of tick infestation in demographic traits might be included in the management and conservation programs of spur-thighed tortoises.

Snakes and Souks: Zoonotic pathogens associated to reptiles in the Marrakech markets, Morocco

The world-famous markets of Marrakech, also known in Arabic as souks, harbor a vast diversity of reptiles that are sold for medicinal/magic/pet purposes or used for snake charming. This unique epidemiological context has never been studied considering the interactions of humans, reptiles, and zoonotic pathogens. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the parasites and pathogens present in blood and feces associated with handled reptiles in the markets of Marrakech to assess the risk of zoonotic transmission within the reptile-human interface. Privately owned reptiles (n = 118), coming from vendors or snake charmers, were examined and blood and feces sampled. DNA was extracted and molecular screening (cPCR, nPCR, qPCR, dqPCR) was performed aiming to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens (i.e., Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp., Cestoda). Overall, 28.9% (34/118) of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. In blood, Anaplasma spp. were detected in four snakes, with two Montpellier snakes positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, while Rickettsia spp. were detected in one Mediterranean chameleon and four puff adders. Leishmania tarentolae was molecularly detected in a Mediterranean chameleon and a Montpellier snake. In feces, the cox1 gene generated a myriad of sequences for nematodes, cestodes, fungi and bacteria. Importantly, Proteus vulgaris was identified from a Mediterranean chameleon. Cryptosporidium spp. nPCR yielded a positive sample (i.e., Cryptosporidium sp. apodemus genotype I) from a Moroccan worm lizard, as well as for bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from a puff adder. Results from this study demonstrated the risk of zoonotic transmission of microorganisms and parasites present in blood and feces from reptiles that are brought to the souks in Marrakech, Morocco, to be sold for medicinal purposes or used for snake charming, being in direct and straight contact with humans.

The Analysis of Oral and Fecal Virome Detects Multiple Novel Emerging Viruses in Snakes

Wild animals are considered reservoirs for emerging and reemerging viruses, such as the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies have reported that bats and ticks harbored variable important pathogenic viruses, some of which could cause potential diseases in humans and livestock, while viruses carried by reptiles were rarely reported. Our study first conducted snakes' virome analysis to establish effective surveillance of potential transboundary emerging diseases. Consequently, Adenoviridae, Circoviridae, Retroviridae, and Parvoviridae were identified in oral samples from Protobothrops mucrosquamatus, Elaphe dione, and Gloydius angusticeps based on sequence similarity to existing viruses. Picornaviridae and Adenoviridae were also identified in fecal samples of Protobothrops mucrosquamatus. Notably, the iflavirus and foamy virus were first reported in Protobothrops mucrosquamatus, enriching the transboundary viral diversity in snakes. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis revealed that both the novel-identified viruses showed low genetic similarity with previously reported viruses. This study provided a basis for our understanding of microbiome diversity and the surveillance and prevention of emerging and unknown viruses in snakes.

A snapshot of climate drivers and temporal variation of Ixodes ovatus abundance from a giant panda living in the wild

Ticks and tick-borne diseases have negative impacts on the health of wild animals including endangered and vulnerable species. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), a vulnerable and iconic flagship species, is threatened by tick infestation as well. Not only can ticks cause anemia and immunosuppression in the giant panda, but also bacterial and viral diseases. However, previous studies regarding tick infestation on giant pandas were limited in scope as case reports from sick or dead animals. In this study, an investigation focusing on the tick infestation of a reintroduced giant panda at the Daxiangling Reintroduction Base in Sichuan, China was conducted. Ticks were routinely collected and identified from the ears of the giant panda from March to September in 2021. A linear model was used to test the correlation between tick abundance and climate factors. All ticks were identified as Ixodes ovatus. Tick abundance was significantly different among months. Results from the linear model showed temperature positively correlated to tick abundance, while air pressure had a negative correlation with tick abundance. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first reported investigation of tick species and abundance on a healthy giant panda living in the natural environment, and provides important information for the conservation of giant pandas and other species sharing the same habitat.

Afoxolaner (NexGard®) in pet snakes for the treatment and control of Ophionyssus natricis (Mesostigmata: Macronyssidae)

BACKGROUND

Ophionyssus natricis is the main species of mite that infests captive reptiles. High infestations may result in the host experiencing general discomfort and deleterious effects, even death. Moreover, O. natricis is an important vector of reptile vector-borne diseases and is considered to be the putative vector of the Reptarenavirus, the causal agent of the inclusion body disease. Despite the cosmopolitan distribution of O. natricis in captive reptiles, treatment options are limited. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy of afoxolaner (NexGard®; Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim, Germany) in heavily infested, privately owned snakes, evaluate the prevalence of mites and drug availability in the plasma of treated snakes (pharmacokinetics) and perform a clinical examination of animals.

METHODS

The study was conducted in two snake breeding facilities, where many snakes were infested with mites. Each animal was clinically examined and weighed, and mite infestations were assessed on the animals and in their enclosures (environment). Animals were treated with a dose of 2.5 mg afoxolaner per kilogram body weight (2.5 mg/kg) administered orally. All animals were examined pre-treatment (T0) and at various time points post-treatment (T1, 6 h; T2, 24 h; T3, 14 days; T4, 28 days). The collected mites were morphologically identified at the species level and the species identity also confirmed molecularly.

RESULTS

Overall, 81 snakes from the two participating facilities (i.e. 70 from site 1 and 11 from site 2) were screened, and 31 (38.3%) snakes were found to have at least one mite. All mites were identified morphologically and molecularly as O. natricis. Lampropeltis was the genus of snakes with highest number of infested individuals. Mites were found to be alive on snakes at T1, but at T2 only dead mites were observed, and at T3 and T4 mites were no longer present on the animals or in their environment. No side effects were observed in the treated snakes.

CONCLUSIONS

A single oral administration of afoxolaner at 2.5 mg/kg was a safe treatment for snakes and 100% effective for the eradication of natural O. natricis infestation without the need to treat the environment of the snake.

Coxiella burnetii in ticks, livestock, pets and wildlife: A mini-review

Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic bacterium with an obligatory intracellular lifestyle and has a worldwide distribution. Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in animals. Since its discovery in 1935, it has been shown to infect a wide range of animal species including mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods. Coxiella burnetii infection is of public and veterinary health and economic concern due to its potential for rapid spread and highly infectious nature. Livestock are the primary source of C. burnetii infection in most Q fever outbreaks which occurs mainly through inhalation of contaminated particles. Aside from livestock, many cases of Q fever linked to exposure to wildlife. Changes in the dynamics of human-wildlife interactions may lead to an increased potential risk of interspecies transmission and contribute to the emergence/re-emergence of Q fever. Although C. burnetii transmission is mainly airborne, ticks may act as vectors and play an important role in the natural cycle of transmission of coxiellosis among wild vertebrates and livestock. In this review, we aim to compile available information on vectors, domestic, and wild hosts of C. burnetii, and to highlight their potential role as bacterial reservoirs in the transmission of C. burnetii.

Revealing the uncharacterised diversity of amphibian and reptile viruses

Amphibians and non-avian reptiles represent a significant proportion of terrestrial vertebrates, however knowledge of their viruses is not proportional to their abundance. Many amphibians and reptiles have strict habitual environments and localised populations and are vulnerable to viral outbreaks and potential elimination as a result. We sought to identify viruses that were hidden in amphibian and reptile metatranscriptomic data by screening 235 RNA-sequencing datasets from a 122 species covering 25 countries. We identified 26 novel viruses and eight previously characterised viruses from fifteen different viral families. Twenty-five viruses had RNA genomes with identity to Arteriviridae, Tobaniviridae, Hantaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Astroviridae, Arenaviridae, Hepeviridae, Picornaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Reoviridae, Flaviviridae and Caliciviridae. In addition to RNA viruses, we also screened datasets for DNA viral transcripts, which are commonly excluded from transcriptomic analysis. We identified ten DNA viruses with identity to Papillomaviridae, Parvoviridae, Circoviridae and Adomaviridae. With the addition of these viruses, we expand the global amphibian and reptile virome and identify new potentially pathogenic viruses that could challenge populations. We speculate that amphibian viruses often have simpler genomes than those in amniotes, as in the case of the Secondpapillomavirinae and Orthomyxoviridae viruses identified in this study. In addition, we find evidence of inter-family recombination in RNA viruses, and we also identify new members of the recombinant Adomaviridae family. Overall, we provide insights into the uncharacterised diversity of amphibian and reptile viruses with the aim of improving population management, treatment and conservation into the future.

Leishmania (Sauroleishmania) tarentolae isolation and sympatric occurrence with Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum in geckoes, dogs and sand flies

The trypanosomatid protist Leishmania tarentolae is a saurian-associated parasite vectored by the Sergentomyia minuta sand fly. This study aimed to confirm the circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in sand flies, reptiles and dogs and to isolate new strains of these protists. Reptilian and sheltered dog blood samples were collected, and sand flies were captured. Samples were tested for Leishmania spp. using duplex real-time PCR (dqPCR) and real-time PCR (qPCR); the origin of blood meal was identified in engorged sand flies by conventional PCR. The reptilian blood and intestinal content of sand fly females were cultured. Dog sera were tested by IFAT using both Leishmania species. Four Tarentola mauritanica geckoes were molecularly positive for L. infantum or L. tarentolae, with no co-infections; moreover, amastigote-like forms of L. infantum were observed in the bone marrow. 24/294 sand flies scored positive for Leishmania spp. by dqPCR, 21 S. minuta and two Phlebotomus perniciosus were positive for L. tarentolae, while only a single Ph. perniciosus was positive for L. infantum. Blood meal analysis confirmed reptile and dog in S. minuta, dog and human in Ph. perniciosus and dog in Phlebotomus neglectus. Two axenic strains of L. tarentolae were obtained. Twelve of 19 dogs scored positive for L. infantum and L. tarentolae by IFAT and three of them also for L. infantum by dqPCR, and six by qPCR. These data confirm the sympatric circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in geckoes, sand flies, and dogs, and suggest that geckoes may be infected with L. infantum.

Leishmania tarentolae is a saurian-associated parasite recently reported in geographical areas where Leishmania infantum is endemic. To confirm the circulation of both protists in sand flies, reptiles and dogs and to isolate new Leishmania spp. strains, reptilian and sheltered dog blood samples were collected and sand flies captured. Samples were molecularly tested for Leishmania spp. and sandflies for origin of blood meal. Dog sera were tested by IFAT for both Leishmania species and reptilian blood and intestine of sand flies were cultured. Four Tarentola mauritanica geckoes were positive for L. infantum or L. tarentolae; moreover, amastigote-like forms of L. infantum were observed in the bone marrow. 24/294 sand flies scored PCR positive for Leishmania spp. Reptile and dog blood were found in S. minuta, dog and human in Ph. perniciosus and dog in Phlebotomus neglectus. Two axenic strains of L. tarentolae were obtained. Twelve of 19 dogs scored positive for L. infantum and L. tarentolae by IFAT and three of them also for L. infantum by PCR, and six by qPCR. Data confirm the sympatric circulation of L. infantum and L. tarentolae in geckoes, sand flies, and dogs, and suggest that geckoes may be infected with L. infantum.

Leishmania spp. in Squamata reptiles from the Mediterranean basin

Leishmania tarentolae is a non-pathogenic trypanosomatid species isolated from geckoes in the Mediterranean basin. In Italy, L. tarentolae and Leishmania infantum occur in sympatry in areas where canine leishmaniosis (CanL) is endemic. Here, we investigated the prevalence and distribution of L. tarentolae in reptilian hosts, and the presence of L. infantum in these hosts in southern Italy. From April 2020 to April 2021, lizards and snakes were captured in urban, peri-urban sites, natural parks and dog shelters. Blood was individually sampled and assessed for the presence of Leishmania spp. by cytology and/or molecular biology. Captured lizards were euthanized and their tissues/organs were tested by duplex real-time-PCR for the detection of L. infantum and L. tarentolae and the positive ones were amplified by conventional PCR to confirm the species identification by sequencing. Samples were also screened by real-time-PCR for L. infantum kDNA minicircle. Of the 259 collected Squamata reptiles, 34 (13.1%) specimens scored positive for Leishmania spp., with a prevalence of 10% for L. tarentolae (n = 26) and of 3.1% for L. infantum (n = 8). Positive lizards were mostly Podarcis siculus (n = 26) from dog shelters, with six specimens positive for L. infantum. In addition, L. tarentolae was detected in one Podarcis filfolensis lizard, and in five T. mauritanica geckos (with one gecko and P. filfolensis lizard showing amastigote-like forms in thrombocytes), whereas L. infantum was detected in one T. mauritanica, and one Hemidactylus turcicus. Saurian reptiles living in CanL endemic areas of the Mediterranean basin may be exposed to both L. tarentolae and L. infantum indicating a sympatric circulation of these species in different vertebrate hosts. Moreover, this study represents the first molecular evidence of L. infantum infection in European reptiles. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Molecular screening of ticks of the genus Amblyomma (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting South African reptiles with comments on their potential to act as vectors for Hepatozoon fitzsimonsi (Dias, 1953) (Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae)

In South Africa, the role of reptilian ticks in the transmission of haemoparasites is lacking, in part, due to limited information on tick diversity and their associated haemoparasites. The aim of this research was to identify tick species parasitizing reptiles and to molecularly screen these ectoparasites for species of the blood apicomplexan genus Hepatozoon. Samples were collected from Ndumo Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Cape Columbine region, Western Cape. Reptiles collected included 2 snakes, 2 monitor lizards of a single species respectively, as well as 17 tortoises of four species. Ticks collected from these were morphologically identified as Amblyomma latum (n = 2) and Amblyomma marmoreum (n = 98), this identification was molecularly confirmed using 16S rRNA and CO1 genes. Screening for Hepatozoon was done by amplifying the 18S rRNA gene. A species of Hepatozoon, Hepatozoon fitzsimonsi, was identified from A. marmoreum ticks, with an overall prevalence of 10%. This Hepatozoon species, has been described parasitizing tortoises from southern Africa, and has been reported from ticks infesting tortoises from Kenya, East Africa. Even though ticks have been suggested to be the likely vector of this Hepatozoon species, with this supported by the findings of Hepatozoon-like developmental stages in ticks collected off of infected tortoises, a recent systematic revision placed this species in a newly erected genus Bartazoon, a genus vectorised by biting insects. The present study thus provides further support for ticks acting as the potential vectors of H. fitzsimonsi.

Flavivirus Persistence in Wildlife Populations

A substantial number of humans are at risk for infection by vector-borne flaviviruses, resulting in considerable morbidity and mortality worldwide. These viruses also infect wildlife at a considerable rate, persistently cycling between ticks/mosquitoes and small mammals and reptiles and non-human primates and humans. Substantially increasing evidence of viral persistence in wildlife continues to be reported. In addition to in humans, viral persistence has been shown to establish in mammalian, reptile, arachnid, and mosquito systems, as well as insect cell lines. Although a considerable amount of research has centered on the potential roles of defective virus particles, autophagy and/or apoptosis-induced evasion of the immune response, and the precise mechanism of these features in flavivirus persistence have yet to be elucidated. In this review, we present findings that aid in understanding how vector-borne flavivirus persistence is established in wildlife. Research studies to be discussed include determining the critical roles universal flavivirus non-structural proteins played in flaviviral persistence, the advancement of animal models of viral persistence, and studying host factors that allow vector-borne flavivirus replication without destructive effects on infected cells. These findings underscore the viral–host relationships in wildlife animals and could be used to elucidate the underlying mechanisms responsible for the establishment of viral persistence in these animals.

Molecular detection of zoonotic blood pathogens in ticks from illegally imported turtles in Italy

International trade of animals may represent a gateway for the spreading of zoonotic pathogens and their vectors. Amongst animals, reptiles are commonly illegally imported worldwide, being Italy in the fifth position of importation of these animals. Thus, the current study analysed the pathogens associated with Hyalomma aegyptium ticks, which were collected from illegally imported tortoises from North Africa to Italy. All tick DNA samples were tested by conventional PCR for the presence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Borrelia spp., Coxiella burnetti, Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp., Rickettsia spp. and microfilariae of filarioids. Out of 22% (n=161) of ticks screened, 78.9% (n=127) were males and 21.1% (n=34) females. Among them, three male specimens collected from two different turtles (1.9%; 95% CI; 0.5-5.5) scored positive for Anaplasma spp./Ehrlichia spp., whereas all females were negative. BLAST analysis of the sequences obtained from positive samples revealed 99-99.3% nucleotide identity with the sequence of Ehrlichia ewingii available in GenBank. The finding of E. ewingii in ticks from imported reptiles warrants the need for imposing strict rules in the international trade of reptiles to effectively reduce the introduction of exotic pathogens and their vectors in new geographic areas.

Detection of Leishmania tarentolae in lizards, sand flies and dogs in southern Italy, where Leishmania infantum is endemic: hindrances and opportunities

Background

Leishmania tarentolae is a protozoan isolated from geckoes (Tarentola annularis, Tarentola mauritanica), which is considered non-pathogenic and is transmitted by herpetophilic Sergentomyia spp. sand flies. This species occurs in sympatry with Leishmania infantum in areas where canine leishmaniasis is endemic. In the present study, we investigated the circulation of L. tarentolae and L. infantum in sand flies, dogs and lizards in a dog shelter in southern Italy, where canine leishmaniasis by L. infantum is endemic.

Methods

Sheltered dogs (n = 100) negative for Leishmania spp. (March 2020) were screened by immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) using promastigotes of both species at two time points (June 2020 and March 2021). Whole blood from dogs, tissues of Podarcis siculus lizards (n = 28) and sand flies (n = 2306) were also sampled and tested by a duplex real-time PCR (dqPCR). Host blood meal was assessed in sand flies by PCR.

Results

Overall, 16 dogs became positive for L. infantum and/or L. tarentolae by IFAT at one or both sampling periods. One canine blood sample was positive for L. infantum, whilst two for L. tarentolae by dqPCR. At the cytology of lizard blood, Leishmania spp. amastigote-like forms were detected in erythrocytes. Twenty-two tissue samples, mostly lung (21.4%), scored molecularly positive for L. tarentolae, corresponding to 10 lizards (i.e., 35.7%). Of the female Sergentomyia minuta sampled (n = 1252), 158 scored positive for L. tarentolae, four for L. infantum, and one co-infected. Two Phlebotomus perniciosus (out of 29 females) were positive for L. tarentolae. Engorged S. minuta (n = 10) fed on humans, and one P. perniciosus, positive for L. tarentolae, on lagomorphs.

Conclusions

Dogs and lacertid lizards (Podarcis siculus) were herein found for the first time infected by L. tarentolae. The detection of both L. tarentolae and L. infantum in S. minuta and P. perniciosus suggests their sympatric circulation, with a potential overlap in vertebrate hosts. The interactions between L. tarentolae and L. infantum should be further investigated in both vectors and vertebrate hosts to understand the potential implications for the diagnosis and control of canine leishmaniasis in endemic areas.

Graphical abstract

Molecular detection of Wolbachia endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites

Wolbachia, a maternally transmitted Gram-negative endosymbiont of onchocercid nematodes and arthropods, has a role in the biology of their host; thus it has been exploited for the filariasis treatment in humans. To assess the presence and prevalence of this endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites, blood and tail tissue as well as ticks and mites collected from them were molecularly screened for Wolbachia DNA using two sets of primers targeting partial 16S rRNA and Wolbachia surface protein (wsp) genes. Positive samples were screened for the partial 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes for filarioids. Of the different species of lizards (Podarcis siculus, Podarcis muralis and Lacerta bilineata) and snakes (Elaphe quatuorlineata and Boa constrictor constrictor) screened from three collection sites, only P. siculus scored positive for Wolbachia 16S rRNA. Among ectoparasites collected from reptiles (Ixodes ricinus ticks and Neotrombicula autumnalis, Ophionyssus sauracum and Ophionyssus natricis mites), I. ricinus (n = 4; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–7) from P. siculus, N. autumnalis (n = 2 each; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–6.5) from P. siculus and P. muralis and O. natricis (n = 1; 14.3%; 95% CI, 0.7–55.4) from Boa constrictor constrictor scored positive for Wolbachia DNA. None of the positive Wolbachia samples scored positive for filarioids. This represents the first report of Wolbachia in reptilian hosts and their ectoparasites, which follows a single identification in the intestinal cells of a filarioid associated with a gecko. This data could contribute to better understand the reptile filarioid-Wolbachia association and to unveil the evolutionary pattern of Wolbachia in its filarial host.