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Garcovich S, Maurelli M, Gisondi P, Peris K, Yosipovitch G, Girolomoni G. Pruritus as a Distinctive Feature of Type 2 Inflammation. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9030303. [PMID: 33807098 PMCID: PMC8005108 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9030303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pruritus is a common symptom of several skin diseases, both inflammatory and neoplastic. Pruritus might have a tremendous impact on patients’ quality of life and strongly interfere with sleep, social, and work activities. We review the role of type-2 inflammation and immunity in the pathogenesis of chronic pruritic conditions of the skin. Type 2 cytokines, including IL-4, IL-13, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, periostin, IL-31, IL-25, and IL-33 are released by mast cells, innate lymphoid cells 2, keratinocytes, and type 2 T lymphocytes, and are master regulators of chronic itch. These cytokines might act as direct pruritogen on primary sensory neurons (pruriceptors) or alter the sensitivity to other itch mediators Type 2 inflammation- and immunity-dominated skin diseases, including atopic dermatitis, prurigo nodularis, bullous pemphigoid, scabies, parasitic diseases, urticaria, and Sézary syndrome are indeed conditions associated with most severe pruritus. In contrast, in other skin diseases, such as scleroderma, lupus erythematosus, hidradenitis suppurativa, and acne, type 2 inflammation is less represented, and pruritus is milder or variable. Th2 inflammation and immunity evolved to protect against parasites, and thus, the scratching response evoked by pruritus might have developed to alert about the presence and to remove parasites from the skin surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Garcovich
- Dermatology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Dermatology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Martina Maurelli
- Section of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, 37126 Verona, Italy; (M.M.); (P.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Paolo Gisondi
- Section of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, 37126 Verona, Italy; (M.M.); (P.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Ketty Peris
- Dermatology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Dermatology Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gil Yosipovitch
- Miami Itch Center, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
| | - Giampiero Girolomoni
- Section of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, 37126 Verona, Italy; (M.M.); (P.G.); (G.G.)
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Abstract
Respiratory allergy including bronchial asthma and food allergy have gained epidemic character in the last decades in industrialized countries. Much has been learned with respect to the pathophysiology of allergic disease and this has facilitated specific therapies. Allergy is a chronic disease, and being so prevalent claims to search for evolutionary causes of the general susceptibility of humans as a species to react to environmental antigens in a Th2 type immune reaction with IgE production. In an evolutionary analysis of Allergy, necessary questions addressed in this review are "Why does IgE exist or why did IgE evolve?" as well as from the point of view of the mismatch hypothesis, "Why is there an Allergy epidemic?" Recent studies on the possible biological and protective role of IgE against parasites, arthropods, venoms or toxins are challenging the widely accepted definition of allergens as generally innocuous antigens. Combining the immunologic danger model and the toxin hypothesis for allergies, the allergic response could have evolved with an adaptive value and allergens could be proxies for other putative noxious agents. The last decades yielded with vast molecular data of allergens. With available bioinformatics tools, we therefore also describe that evolutionary theory could be applied to prevent allergy, estimate cross-reactivity, to design allergen-specific immunotherapy and to assess the risks of novel foods.
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Zhang Y. Why do we study animal toxins? DONG WU XUE YAN JIU = ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2015; 36:183-222. [PMID: 26228472 PMCID: PMC4790257 DOI: 10.13918/j.issn.2095-8137.2015.4.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Venom (toxins) is an important trait evolved along the evolutionary tree of animals. Our knowledges on venoms, such as their origins and loss, the biological relevance and the coevolutionary patterns with other organisms are greatly helpful in understanding many fundamental biological questions, i.e., the environmental adaptation and survival competition, the evolution shaped development and balance of venoms, and the sophisticated correlations among venom, immunity, body power, intelligence, their genetic basis, inherent association, as well as the cost-benefit and trade-offs of biological economy. Lethal animal envenomation can be found worldwide. However, from foe to friend, toxin studies have led lots of important discoveries and exciting avenues in deciphering and fighting human diseases, including the works awarded the Nobel Prize and lots of key clinic therapeutics. According to our survey, so far, only less than 0.1% of the toxins of the venomous animals in China have been explored. We emphasize on the similarities shared by venom and immune systems, as well as the studies of toxin knowledge-based physiological toxin-like proteins/peptides (TLPs). We propose the natural pairing hypothesis. Evolution links toxins with humans. Our mission is to find out the right natural pairings and interactions of our body elements with toxins, and with endogenous toxin-like molecules. Although, in nature, toxins may endanger human lives, but from a philosophical point of view, knowing them well is an effective way to better understand ourselves. So, this is why we study toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of The Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming Yunnan 650223,
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Bourgeois EA, Subramaniam S, Cheng TY, De Jong A, Layre E, Ly D, Salimi M, Legaspi A, Modlin RL, Salio M, Cerundolo V, Moody DB, Ogg G. Bee venom processes human skin lipids for presentation by CD1a. J Exp Med 2015; 212:149-63. [PMID: 25584012 PMCID: PMC4322046 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20141505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms frequently co-opt host immune responses, so study of their mode of action can provide insight into novel inflammatory pathways. Using bee and wasp venom responses as a model system, we investigated whether venoms contain CD1-presented antigens. Here, we show that venoms activate human T cells via CD1a proteins. Whereas CD1 proteins typically present lipids, chromatographic separation of venoms unexpectedly showed that stimulatory factors partition into protein-containing fractions. This finding was explained by demonstrating that bee venom-derived phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activates T cells through generation of small neoantigens, such as free fatty acids and lysophospholipids, from common phosphodiacylglycerides. Patient studies showed that injected PLA2 generates lysophospholipids within human skin in vivo, and polyclonal T cell responses are dependent on CD1a protein and PLA2. These findings support a previously unknown skin immune response based on T cell recognition of CD1a proteins and lipid neoantigen generated in vivo by phospholipases. The findings have implications for skin barrier sensing by T cells and mechanisms underlying phospholipase-dependent inflammatory skin disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvire A Bourgeois
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Sumithra Subramaniam
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK
| | - Tan-Yun Cheng
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Annemieke De Jong
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Emilie Layre
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Dalam Ly
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Maryam Salimi
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK
| | - Annaliza Legaspi
- Division of Dermatology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095 Division of Dermatology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Robert L Modlin
- Division of Dermatology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095 Division of Dermatology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Mariolina Salio
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK
| | - Vincenzo Cerundolo
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK
| | - D Branch Moody
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114
| | - Graham Ogg
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and University of Oxford NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX3 9DS, England, UK
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Dalessandri T, Strid J. Beneficial autoimmunity at body surfaces - immune surveillance and rapid type 2 immunity regulate tissue homeostasis and cancer. Front Immunol 2014; 5:347. [PMID: 25101088 PMCID: PMC4105846 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells (ECs) line body surface tissues and provide a physicochemical barrier to the external environment. Frequent microbial and non-microbial challenges such as those imposed by mechanical disruption, injury or exposure to noxious environmental substances including chemicals, carcinogens, ultraviolet-irradiation, or toxins cause activation of ECs with release of cytokines and chemokines as well as alterations in the expression of cell-surface ligands. Such display of epithelial stress is rapidly sensed by tissue-resident immunocytes, which can directly interact with self-moieties on ECs and initiate both local and systemic immune responses. ECs are thus key drivers of immune surveillance at body surface tissues. However, ECs have a propensity to drive type 2 immunity (rather than type 1) upon non-invasive challenge or stress – a type of immunity whose regulation and function still remain enigmatic. Here, we review the induction and possible role of type 2 immunity in epithelial tissues and propose that rapid immune surveillance and type 2 immunity are key regulators of tissue homeostasis and carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Dalessandri
- Division of Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London , London , UK
| | - Jessica Strid
- Division of Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London , London , UK
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