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Shu L, Tao T, Xiao D, Liu S, Tao Y. The role of B cell immunity in lung adenocarcinoma. Genes Immun 2025:10.1038/s41435-025-00331-9. [PMID: 40360749 DOI: 10.1038/s41435-025-00331-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2025] [Accepted: 04/25/2025] [Indexed: 05/15/2025]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the deadliest cancer globally. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), including adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and large cell carcinoma, constitutes a significant portion of cases. Adenocarcinoma, the most prevalent type, has seen a rising incidence. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have improved outcomes in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), yet response rates remain unsatisfactory. PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors are primary ICIs for LUAD, targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway between CD8+ T cells and tumor cells. However, LUAD presents a "cold tumor" phenotype with fewer CD8+ T cells and lower PD-1 expression, leading to resistance to ICIs. Thus, understanding the function of other immune cell in tumor microenvironment is crucial for developing novel immunotherapies for LUAD. B cells, which is part of the adaptive immune system, have gained attention for its role in cancer immunology. While research on B cells lags behind T cells, recent studies reveal their close correlation with prognosis and immunotherapy effectiveness in various solid tumors, including lung cancer. B cells show higher abundance, activity, and prognostic significance in LUAD than that in LUSC. This review summarizes the difference of B cell immunity between LUAD and other lung cancers, outlines the role of B cell immunity in LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Shu
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis (Central South University), Cancer Research Institute and School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tania Tao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis (Central South University), Cancer Research Institute and School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Desheng Xiao
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shuang Liu
- Department of Oncology, Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Yongguang Tao
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis (Central South University), Cancer Research Institute and School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Ministry of Education, Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Liu M, Khasiyev F, Spagnolo-Allende A, Sanchez DL, Andrews H, Yang Q, Beiser A, Qiao Y, Romero JR, Rundek T, Brickman AM, Manly JJ, Elkind MSV, Seshadri S, Chen C, Del Brutto OH, Hilal S, Wasserman BA, Tosto G, Fornage M, Gutierrez J. Multi-population Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Multiple Novel Loci associated with Asymptomatic Intracranial Large Artery Stenosis. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2025:2025.05.06.25327093. [PMID: 40385396 PMCID: PMC12083599 DOI: 10.1101/2025.05.06.25327093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2025]
Abstract
Background Intracranial large artery stenosis (ILAS) is one of the most common causes of stroke worldwide and is associated with the risk for future vascular events. Asymptomatic ILAS is a frequent finding on neuroimaging and shares many risk factors with atherosclerotic vascular disease. Whether asymptomatic ILAS is driven by genetic variants is not well-understood. Methods and Results This study included 4960 participants from seven geographically diverse population-based cohorts (34% Whites, 16% African Americans, 22% Hispanics, 24% Asians, 5% native Ecuadorians). We defined asymptomatic ILAS as luminal stenosis > 50% in any large brain artery using time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). A genome-wide association study revealed one variant in RP11-552D8.1 (rs75615271; OR, 1.22 [1.11-1.33]; P=4.85×10-8) associated with global ILAS at genome-wide significance (P<5×10-8). Gene-based association analysis identified a gene-set enriched in chr1q32 region, including NEK2, LPGAT1, INTS7, DTL, and TMEM206, in global ILAS (P=1.34 ×10-7) and anterior ILAS (P=1.77 ×10-8). Conclusion This study reveals one variant rs75615271 associated with asymptomatic ILAS in a multi-population. Further functional studies may help elucidate the role that this variant plays in the pathophysiology of asymptomatic ILAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghua Liu
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Farid Khasiyev
- Department of Neurology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Antonio Spagnolo-Allende
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Danurys L Sanchez
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Howard Andrews
- Biostatistics Department, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Qiong Yang
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alexa Beiser
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ye Qiao
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jose Rafael Romero
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tatjana Rundek
- Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Adam M Brickman
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jennifer J Manly
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mitchell SV Elkind
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sudha Seshadri
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
- The Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer’s and Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Sciences Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Christopher Chen
- School of Medicine and Research Center, Universidad Espíritu Santo – Ecuador, Samborondón, Ecuador
| | - Oscar H Del Brutto
- School of Medicine and Research Center, Universidad Espíritu Santo – Ecuador, Samborondón, Ecuador
| | - Saima Hilal
- Memory Aging and Cognition Center, Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bruce A Wasserman
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Giuseppe Tosto
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- The Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Myriam Fornage
- Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, Mc Govern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
- Human Genetics Center, School of Public Health, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jose Gutierrez
- Department of Neurology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Han M, Wan F, Xiao B, Du J, Peng C, Peng F. Cell components of tumor microenvironment in lung adenocarcinoma: Promising targets for small-molecule compounds. Chin Med J (Engl) 2025; 138:905-915. [PMID: 39512221 PMCID: PMC12037101 DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000003341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 11/15/2024] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Lung cancer is one of the most lethal tumors in the world with a 5-year overall survival rate of less than 20%, mainly including lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). Tumor microenvironment (TME) has become a new research focus in the treatment of lung cancer. The TME is heterogeneous in composition and consists of cellular components, growth factors, proteases, and extracellular matrix. The various cellular components exert a different role in apoptosis, metastasis, or proliferation of lung cancer cells through different pathways, thus contributing to the treatment of adenocarcinoma and potentially facilitating novel therapeutic methods. This review summarizes the research progress on different cellular components with cell-cell interactions in the TME of LUAD, along with their corresponding drug candidates, suggesting that targeting cellular components in the TME of LUAD holds great promise for future theraputic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyu Han
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Feng Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610075, China
- Chengdu No. 1 Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan 610031, China
| | - Bin Xiao
- Chengdu Push Bio-Technology Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan 610045, China
| | - Junrong Du
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Cheng Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan 610075, China
| | - Fu Peng
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
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Li X, Lu F, Cao M, Yao Y, Guo J, Zeng G, Qian J. The pro-tumor activity of INTS7 on lung adenocarcinoma via inhibiting immune infiltration and activating p38MAPK pathway. Sci Rep 2024; 14:25636. [PMID: 39465338 PMCID: PMC11514252 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-77093-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 10/18/2024] [Indexed: 10/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common lung cancer, accounting for 19.4% of all cancer deaths. Our previous study discovered that INTS7 expression was upregulated in LUAD, while the precise mechanism by which INTS7 exerts pro-cancer effects remains unknown. In our study, shRNA was used to knockdown the expression of INTS7 in A549 cells. Cancer behaviors in vitro were determined by CCK8 and transwell assays. Xenograft mice models were constructed to detect the tumorigenesis in vivo. Immunofluorescence and toluidine blue staining were used to test the immune infiltration. Bioinformatics analysis was adopted to predict the potential signaling pathways and construct INTS7-derived genomic prognostic model. Western blot was utilized to confirm the molecular pathways. In total, downregulation of INTS7 suppressed proliferation, invasion and migration of A549 cells, as well as tumor growth. Bioinformatics and western blot analysis indicated that p38MAPK pathway participated in the regulatory mechanism of INTS7. Moreover, INTS7 expression was negatively correlated with infiltration of memory B cells and mast cells, while positively correlated with infiltration of macrophages M2. A nomogram, including INTS7-derived risk score, was used to estimate individual's survival probability. Generally, our findings provided comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms about INTS7, and targeting INTS7 may represent a potential therapy for LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Li
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Feifei Lu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Man Cao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Yiyong Yao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Jingjing Guo
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Gang Zeng
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China.
| | - Jinxian Qian
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Gusu School, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 242 Guangji Road, Soochow, 215000, Jiangsu, P.R. China.
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Tong X, Ma L, Wu D, Liu Y, Liu Y. Comprehensive landscape of integrator complex subunits and their association with prognosis and tumor microenvironment in gastric cancer. Open Med (Wars) 2024; 19:20240997. [PMID: 39027882 PMCID: PMC11255557 DOI: 10.1515/med-2024-0997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Backgrounds The integrator complex (INT) is a multiprotein assembly in gene transcription. Although several subunits of INT complex have been implicated in multiple cancers, the complex's role in gastric cancer (GC) is poorly understood. Methods The gene expressions, prognostic values, and the associations with microsatellite instability (MSI) of INT subunits were confirmed by GEO and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases. cBioPortal, GeneMANIA, TISIDB, and MCPcounter algorithm were adopted to investigate the mutation frequency, protein-protein interaction network, and the association with immune cells of INT subunits in GC. Additionally, in vitro experiments were performed to confirm the role of INTS11 in pathogenesis of GC. Results The mRNA expression levels of INTS2/4/5/7/8/9/10/11/12/13/14 were significantly elevated both in GSE183904 and TCGA datasets. Through functional enrichment analysis, the functions of INT subunits were mainly associated with snRNA processing, INT, and DNA-directed 5'-3' RNA polymerase activity. Moreover, these INT subunit expressions were associated with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and MSI in GC. In vitro experiments demonstrated that knockdown of the catalytic core INTS11 in GC cells inhibits cell proliferation ability. INTS11 overexpression showed opposite effects. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that the INT complex might act as an oncogene and can be used as a prognosis biomarker for GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxia Tong
- Experimental Research Center, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 201700, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Ma
- Experimental Research Center, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 201700, Shanghai, China
| | - Di Wu
- Experimental Research Center, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 201700, Shanghai, China
| | - Yibing Liu
- Experimental Research Center, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 201700, Shanghai, China
| | - Yonglei Liu
- Experimental Research Center, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 1158 East Gongyuan Road, 201700, Shanghai, China
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Wang B, Du Z, Lin C, Liu D, Guo J, Shi J, Wang X. Comprehensive analysis of INTS family related to expression, prognosis, diagnosis and immune features in hepatocellular carcinoma. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30244. [PMID: 38720706 PMCID: PMC11076979 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose The integrator subunit (INTS) family, a group exclusive to metazoans, participates in various biologic processes. However, their roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain largely unexplored. Methods Public databases were utilized to investigate the transcriptional and protein expression, and clinical relevance of the INTS family in HCC. Meanwhile, the effects of INTS13 knockdown and overexpression on cell proliferation and apoptosis were studied using HCC cell lines. Results The mRNA expression of most INTSs were higher in tumor than normal tissues. Higher expression of INTS1/2/3/4/7/8/9/11/12/13 were correlated with poorer overall survival (OS) in Kaplan-Meier Survival Analysis. Multivariate analysis revealed higher level of INTS13 was an independent prognostic factor for shorter OS. Furthermore, genetic alteration of INTS3/6/7/8/9/10 were found in HCC patients and was associated with shorter disease-free survival and progression-free survival. INTS1/2/3/5/7/11/13/14 were associated with activation of tumor-induced immune response and immune infiltration in HCC. Knockdown of INTS13 inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in HCC cell lines, while overexpression of INTS13 had the opposite effect. Conclusion Our results indicate that INTS13 is an independent prognostic biomarker in HCC. Furthermore, INTS13 enhances cell proliferation and decreases cell apoptosis in HCC cell lines leading to a poorer OS in HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingyu Wang
- Department of Science and Education, The Affiliated TCM Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zifei Du
- Department of Science and Education, The Affiliated TCM Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - ChongSen Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, Huizhou Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Huicheng, Guangdong, China
| | - Dandan Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Taixing Hospital of TCM, Taixing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiewen Guo
- Department of Science and Education, The Affiliated TCM Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiawei Shi
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Gaikwad S, Agrawal MY, Kaushik I, Ramachandran S, Srivastava SK. Immune checkpoint proteins: Signaling mechanisms and molecular interactions in cancer immunotherapy. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:137-150. [PMID: 35341913 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2022.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Immune checkpoint proteins (ICP) are currently one of the most novel and promising areas of immune-oncology research. This novel way of targeting tumor cells has shown favorable success over the past few years with some FDA approvals such as Ipilimumab, Nivolumab, Pembrolizumab etc. Currently, more than 3000 clinical trials of immunotherapeutic agents are ongoing with majority being ICPs. However, as the number of trials increase so do the challenges. Some challenges such as adverse side effects, non-specific binding on healthy tissues and absence of response in some subset populations are critical obstacles. For a safe and effective further therapeutic development of molecules targeting ICPs, understanding their mechanism at molecular level is crucial. Since ICPs are mostly membrane bound receptors, a number of downstream signaling pathways divaricate following ligand-receptor binding. Most ICPs are expressed on more than one type of immune cell populations. Further, the expression varies within a cell type. This naturally varied expression pattern adds to the difficulty of targeting specific effector immune cell types against cancer. Hence, understanding the expression pattern and cellular mechanism helps lay out the possible effect of any immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss the signaling mechanism, expression pattern among various immune cells and molecular interactions derived using interaction database analysis (BioGRID).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreyas Gaikwad
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, and Center for Tumor Immunology and Targeted Cancer Therapy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA
| | - Manas Yogendra Agrawal
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, and Center for Tumor Immunology and Targeted Cancer Therapy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA
| | - Itishree Kaushik
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, and Center for Tumor Immunology and Targeted Cancer Therapy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA
| | - Sharavan Ramachandran
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, and Center for Tumor Immunology and Targeted Cancer Therapy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA
| | - Sanjay K Srivastava
- Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, and Center for Tumor Immunology and Targeted Cancer Therapy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA.
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